August 2024 – Jharkhand Board Solution

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes in Hindi & English Jharkhand Board

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Veer

JAC Jharkhand Board Class 8th Social Science Notes in Hindi & English Medium

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes in English Medium

Jharkhand Board Class 8th History Notes

Jharkhand Board Class 8th Geography Notes

Jharkhand Board Class 8th Civics Notes

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Solutions in Hindi Medium

JAC Board Class 8th History Notes in Hindi

Chapter 1 कैसे, कब और कहाँ Notes
Chapter 2 व्यापार से साम्राज्य तक कंपनी की सत्ता स्थापित होती है Notes
Chapter 3 ग्रामीण क्षेत्र पर शासन चलाना Notes
Chapter 4 आदिवासी, दीकु और एक स्वर्ण युग की कल्पना Notes
Chapter 5 जब जनता बगावत करती है (1857 और उसके बाद) Notes
Chapter 6 बुनकर, लोहा बनाने वाले और फैक्ट्री मालिक Notes
Chapter 7 देशी जनता को सभ्य बनाना राष्ट्र को शिक्षित करना Notes
Chapter 8 महिलाएँ, जाति एवं सुधार Notes
Chapter 9 राष्ट्रीय आंदोलन का संघटन : 1870 के दशक से 1947 तक Notes
Chapter 10 स्वतंत्रता के बाद भारत Notes

JAC Board Class 8th Geography Notes in Hindi

Chapter 1 संसाधन Notes
Chapter 2 भूमि, मृदा, जल, प्राकृतिक वनस्पति और वन्य जीवन संसाधन Notes
Chapter 3 खनिज और शक्ति संसाधन Notes
Chapter 4 कृषि Notes
Chapter 5 उद्योग Notes
Chapter 6 मानव संसाधन Notes

JAC Board Class 8th Civics Notes in Hindi

Chapter 1 भारतीय संविधान Notes
Chapter 2 धर्मनिरपेक्षता की समझ Notes
Chapter 3 हमें संसद क्यों चाहिए? Notes
Chapter 4 कानूनों की समझ Notes
Chapter 5 न्यायपालिका Notes
Chapter 6 हमारी आपराधिक न्याय प्रणाली Notes
Chapter 7 हाशियाकरण की समझ Notes
Chapter 8 हाशियाकरण से निपटना Notes
Chapter 9 जन सुविधाएँ Notes
Chapter 10 कानून और सामाजिक न्याय Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions History Chapter 5 When People Rebel 1857 and After

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Prasanna

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Solutions History Chapter 5 When People Rebel 1857 and After

JAC Class 8th History When People Rebel 1857 and After InText Questions and Answers

Page 52

Question 1.
Imagine you are a sepoy in the Company army, advising your nephew not to take employment in the army. What reasons would you give? The reasons would be:
Answer:

The working conditions are very harsh and bitter.
The salary and other allowances are very low.
The person who will be recruited in the army might be posted overseas.
They do not have any respect for Indian religious beliefs and sentiments.

Page 55

Question 2.
What were the important concerns in the minds of the people according to Sitaram and according to Vishnubhatt?
Answer:
The important concerns in the minds of the people according to:
Sitaram

The main reason of sepoy’s revolt was the seizing of Oudh.
The cartridge of rifles were grease with the fat of cows and pigs and the sepoys would challenge the British.

Vishnubhatt

There were 84 new rules which would affect them unfavourably.
Kings and princes would protest the Company’s rule.
Major disturbance and turbulence would occur.

Question 3.
What role did they think the rulers were playing? What role did the sepoys seem to play?
Answer:
Role played by the rulers:
The rulers sent their forces to help and support the British. They never thought about the poor people and led a luxurious and comfortable life. Role played by the sepoys: They mutinied in many places of India. They killed several British officers and then sacrificed their life as well.

Question 4.
Why did the Mughal emperor agree to support the rebels?
Answer:
The Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, agreed to support the rebels because he wanted to rule the whole country as an independent ruler. The emperor was also against the policies of the British and in the mutiny, the emperor got the chance to do so.

Question 5.
Write a paragraph on the assessment he may have made before accepting the offer of the sepoys.
Answer:
As the Revolt of 1857 spread the sepoy regiments seized Delhi. Bahadur Shah Zafar had neutral views about religion. So some Indian kings and regiments accepted him as the Emperor of India. When the sepoys arrived at his court he asked them why they had come. He told them that he did not have the means to maintain them. Initially he was indecisive. He yielded to the demands of the sepoys when they told him that it was not possible for them to win against the East India Company without his support.

Page 59

Question 6.
Make a list of places where the uprising took place in May, June and July 1857.
Answer:
List of places where the uprising took place in May, June and July 1857 are: Meerut Delhi Faizabad Bareilly Lucknow Bulandshahar Kanpur Jhansi

Page 64

Question 7.
Imagine you are a British officer in Awadh during the rebellion. What would you do to keep your plans of fighting the rebels a top secret.
Student need to do it on their own. (Hint: I would take quick and sudden actions without revealing the plan of actions.)

JAC Class 8th History When People Rebel 1857 and AfterTextbook Questions and Answers

( Let’s Recall)

Question 1.
What was the demand of Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi that was refused by the British?
Answer:
After the death of Rani Lakshmibai’s husband, she wanted her adopted son to be recognised as the heir to the kingdom. But this demand was refused by the British.

Question 2.
What did the British do to protect the interests of those who converted to Christianity?
Answer:
The British passed a law to protect the interests as allowing Indians to inherit the property of their ancestors those who converted to Christianity.

Question 3.
What objections did the sepoys have to the new cartridges that they were asked to use?
Answer:
The new cartridges that they were asked to use were coated with the fats of cows and pigs and the sepoys objected as it was related to the religious sentiments.

Question 4.
How did the last Mughal emperor live the last years of his life?
Answer:
The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar had a very miserable and vulnerable life. He was given life imprisonment for supporting the revolt against the British. He and his wife were sent to jail in Rangoon. He died there after 4 years.

(Let’s Discuss)

Question 5.
What could be the reasons for the confidence of the British rulers about their position in India before May 1857?
Answer:
The reasons for the confidence of the British rulers about their position in India before May 1857 were:
(i) Nawabs and rajas had lost their authority and honour. Residents had been stationed in many courts, the freedom of the rulers reduced, their armed forces disbanded and their revenues and territories taken away.

Awadh was one of the last territories to be annexe(d) In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh and in 1856 it was taken over.
Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king in 1856 and after his death none of his descendants would be recognised as kings and they would just be called princes.

Question 6.
What impact did Bahadur Shah Zafar’s support to the rebellion have on the people and the ruling families?
Answer:
Bahadur Shah Zafar’s support to the rebellion boosted the morale of the people and the ruling families:

The people of the towns and villages also rose up in rebellion and rallied around local leaders, zamindars and chiefs who were prepared to establish their authority and fight the British.
Nana Saheb, the adopted son of the late Peshwa Baji Rao, gathered armed forces and expelled the British garrison from the city.
Birjis Question adr, the son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, was proclaimed the new Nawab in Lucknow. He too acknowledged the suzerainty of Bahadur Shah Zafar.
In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British along with Tantia Tope, the general of Nana Saheb.

Question 7.
How did the British succeed in securing the submission of the rebel landowners of Awadh?
Answer:
The British tried their best to win back the loyalty of the people. They announced rewards for loyal landholders as they would be allowed to continue to enjoy traditional rights over their lands. Those who had rebelled were told that if they submitted to the British and if they had not killed any white people, they would remain safe and their rights and claims to land would not be denied.

Question 8.
In what ways did the British change their policies as a result of the rebellion of 1857?
Answer:
The important changes that were introduced by the British are as follows:
(i) In 1858, the British Parliament passed a new Act and transferred the powers of the East India Company to the British Crown in order to ensure a more responsible management of Indian affairs.

(ii) All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territory would never be annexed in future. They were allowed to pass on their kingdoms to their heirs, including adopted sons. However, they were made to acknowledge the British Question ueen as their Sovereign Paramount.

(iii) It was decided that the proportion of Indian soldiers in the army would be reduced and the
number of European soldiers would be increased It was also decided that more soldiers would be recruited from among the Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans instead of recruiting soldiers from Awadh, Bihar, central India and south India.

(iv) The land and property of Muslims was confiscated on a large scale and they were treated with suspicion and hostility. The British believed that they were responsible for the rebellion in a big way.

(v) They decided to respect the religious and social practices of the people in India.

(vi) Policies were made to protect landlords and zamindars and give them security of rights over their lands.

(Let’s Do)

Question 9.
Find out stories and songs remembered by people in your area or your family about San Sattavan ki Ladaai. What memories do people cherish about the great uprising?
Answer:
Students need to do it on their own.

Question 10.
Find out more about Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi. In what ways would she have been an unusual woman for her times?
Answer:
Lakshmibai, Rani of Jhansi (1835-1858), a leader of Indian mutiny of 1857. Bom in Varanasi in northern India, Lakshmi Bai was married to Gangadhar Rao, the ‘ ruler of Jhansi The raja died in 1853, leaving no direct male heir, but had adopted a son without a consent of the British East India Company. The adopted son’s claim to the throne was disregarded by James Dalhousie, governor-general of India. When Jhansi fell, Lakshmibai joined the rebel leader Tantiya Tope to fight at kalpi.

When kalpi, too, fell to the British, they escaped to the forest and captured Gwalior Fort in 1858. Here, supported by the Gwalior forces, she continued to fight the British until shot dead during a battle close to the fort. She was 23 years ol(d) Romanticized as a heroine and freedom fighter, and apparently gaining the respect of her enemies for her bravery, Lakshmibai was the one of the best leaders of the Jhansi. Rani Lakshmibai was the great queen of our Indian history she remembered in all time in every heart.

JAC Class 8th History When People Rebel 1857 and After Important Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1.
Awadh was annexed in the year
(a) 1823
(b) 1843
(c) 1856
(d) 1866
Answer:
(c) 1856

Question 2.
The Sepoy’s mutiny of 1857 started from………
(a) Meerut
(b) Delhi
(c) Lucknow
(d) Kolkata
Answer:
(a) Meerut

Question 3.
The sepoys felt that should rule India instead of the British.
(a) Wajid Ali Shah, the nawab of Oudh
(b) The Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar
(c) Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore
(d) Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi
Answer:
(b) The Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar

Question 4.
Birjis Question adr’s mother took part in organizing the uprising against the British. Her name was
(a) Noor Jahan
(b) Razia Sultan
(c) Begum Hazrat Mahal
(d) Begum Zeenat Mahal
Answer:
(c) Begum Hazrat Mahal

Question 5.
The Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar died in…….. .
(a) The Audience Hall
(b) The Royal palace
(c) The Mosque
(d) The Rangoon jail
Answer:
(d) The Rangoon jail

Question 6.
Nana Saheb was living in/near ……..when the mutiny started.
(a) Jhansi
(b) Kanpur
(c) Gwalior
(d) Meerut
Answer:
(b) Kanpur

Question 7.
Lucknow was recaptured by the British army in……..
(a) March 1858
(b) Jume 1859
(c) October 1858
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Jhansi

Question 8.
Rani Lakshmibai was defeated and killed in…… .
(a) June 1858
(b) July 1859
(c) June 1859
(d) May 1858
Answer:
(a) June 1858

Question 9.
In the Mandia region of Madhya Pradesh, of Ramgarh raised and led an army of four thousand against the British who had taken over the administration of the state.
(a) Rani Lakshmibai
(b) Nana Saheb
(c) Tantia Tope
(d) Rani Avantibai Lodhi
Answer:
(d) Rani Avantibai Lodhi

Question 10.
………. escaped to the jungles of central India and continued to fight a guerrilla war with the support of many tribal and peasant leaders.
(a) Mangal Pandey
(b) Tantia Tope
(c) Wajid Ali
(d) Birjis Question adr
Answer:
(b) Tantia Tope

Very Short Answer Type Question

Question 1.
Name the person who translated the memoirs of Sitaram Pande into English.
Answer:
Norgate translated the memoirs of Sitaram Pande into English.

Question 2
Who was the son of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah?
Answer:
Birjis Question adr was the son of the Nawab Wajid Ali Shah.

Question 3
When was Mangal Pandey hanged to death and why?
Answer:
On 29 March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a young soldier was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore.

Question 4.
Who was Tantia Tope?
Answer:
Tantia Tope was the General of Nana Saheb.

Question 5.
What was the first step taken by the Company towards ending the Mughal dynasty?
Answer:
The first step taken by the Company towards ending the Mughal dynasty was to remove the name of the Mughal Emperor from the coins minted by the Company.

Question 6.
Name the person who took charge of a large force of fighters who came to Delhi.
Answer:
A soldier from Bareilly, Bakht Khan took charge of a large force of fighters who came to Delhi.

Question 7.
What do you mean by mutiny?
Answer:
When soldiers as a group disobey their officers in the army then it is called mutiny.

Question 8.
Name any two smaller rulers who acknowledged the authority of Bahadur Shah Zafar.
Answer:
Two smaller rulers who acknowledged the authority of Bahadur Shah Zafar were Nana Saheb and Birjis Question adr.

Question 9.
Who were ‘Viceroy’?
Answer:
The Governor General of India was given the title of ‘Viceroy’ which means a personal representative of the Crown.

Question 10.
For what reason did the British treat Muslims with suspicion and hostility?
Answer:
The British believed that Muslims were responsible for the rebellion in a big way, hence they treated Muslims with suspicion and hostility.

Question 11.
Why were the powers of the East India Company transferred to the British Crown?
Answer:
The powers of the East India Company were transferred to the British Crown in order to ensure a more responsible management of Indian affairs.

Short Answer Type Question

Question 1.
What was the condition for the ruling chiefs who could pass on their kingdoms to their heirs?
Answer:
All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territory would never be annexed in future. They were allowed to pass on their kingdoms to their heirs which includes adopted sons. But, they were made to acknowledge the British ueen as their Sovereign Paramount.

Question 2.
What do you understand by Taiping Rebellion?
Answer:
Taiping Rebellion had started in 1850 and could be suppressed only by the middle of 1860s. Thousands of labouring, poor people were led by Hong Xiuquan to fight for the establishment of the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace. This was known as the Taiping Rebellion.

Question 3.
What were the social causes of the revolt?
Answer:
The British believed that Indian society had to be reforme(d) Many laws were passed to stop the practice of sati and to encourage the remarriage of widows. They did promotion of English- language education. Many Indians believed that the British were meddling and interfering in their social customs and their traditional way of life. Hence, revolted against the British rule.

Question 4.
The British made efforts to win back the loyalty of the people. What were they?
Answer:
The British tried their best to win back the loyalty of the people in the following ways:

The British announced rewards for the loyal landlords who would be allowed to continue to enjoy traditional rights over their lands.
Those who had rebelled were told that if they submit to the British and if they had not killed any white people then they would remain safe and their rights and claims to land would not be denied.

Question 5.
When the British established political power in India. What happened to the Nawabs and Rajas?
Answer:
When British established political power in India then:

The Nawabs and Rajas lost their authority and honour.
The freedom of the rulers reduced and British Residents were stationed in all the courts, their armed forces disbanded and territories taken away by stages.

Question 6.
Brief about on Subedar Sitaram Pande.
Answer:
Sitaram Pande was employed in 1812 as a sepoy in the Bengal Native Army. He served the English for 48 years and retired in 1860. He helped the British to suppress the rebellion though his own son was a rebel and was killed by the British in front of his eyes. On retirement, he was persuaded by Norgate his Commanding Officer to write his memoirs. He completed the writing in 1861 in Awadhi and Norgate translated it into English and published it under the title ‘From Sepoy to Subedar’.

Question 7.
Write the main provisions of the Act of 1858.
Answer:
The main provisions of the Act of 1858 were as follows:

In order to ensure more responsible management of Indian affairs, powers of the East India Company were transferred to the British Crown.
One of the British Cabinet member was appointed Secretary of State for India and was made responsible for all matters related to the governance of India.
The title of Viceroy was given to the Governor-General of India which means a personal representative of the Crown.

Question 8.
Why do you think the Indian soldiers get angry at the British?
Answer:
The Indian soldiers got angry at the British because they were unhappy • about their salary, allowances and conditions of service. Some of the new rules violated their religious emotions and beliefs. Those were the days when many people in the country believed that if they crossed the sea they would lose their religion and caste. So, when in 1824 the sepoys were told to go to Burma by the sea route to fight for the Company, they refused to follow the order, though they agreed to go by the land route. They were severely punished In 1856, the Company passed a new law which stated that every new person who took up employment in the Company’s army had to agree to serve overseas if required.

Long Answer Type Question

Question 1.
The British introduced reforms in the Indian society. What were they? How did people of India respond to them?
Answer:
British introduced the following reforms in the Indian society:
(i) Laws were passed to stop the practice of sati and to encourage the remarriage of widows.
(ii) Promotion of English-language education was done actively.
(iii) After 1830, the Company allowed Christian missionaries to function freely in its domain and even own land and property.
(iv) A new law was passed to make conversion to Christianity easier in 1850.
(v) Many Indians began to feel that the British were destroying and suppressing their religion, social customs and their traditional way of leading the life. They were not happy with some of the changes which the British brought.

Question 2.
How did the rebellion spread to other regions of the country?
Answer:
Due to the war with sepoys the position of the British became very weak in Delhi and they were almost defeated by the rebel force. Hence, there was no uprising for almost a week. After sometime a spurt of mutinies began in several parts of India. Regiment after regiment mutinied and took to join other troops at Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow. The people of the towns and villages also rose up in rebellion. They rallied around local leaders, zamindars and chiefs who were prepared to establish their authority and fight the British.

Nana Saheb who lived near Kanpur gathered armed forces and expelled the British Garrison from the city. He proclaimed himself Peshwa and declared that he was a Governor under emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar. In Lucknow, Birjis Question adr was proclaimed the new Nawab. He too acknowledged the suzerainty of Bahadur Shah Zafar. In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British along with Tantia Tope, the General of Nana Saheb.

A similar situation of rebel also developed in the region of Awadh. Many new leaders also came up and joined the revolt. Ahmadullah Shah, a maulvi from Faizabad, raised a large force of supporters. He came to Lucknow to fight the British. In Delhi, a large number of religious warriors came together to wipe out the British. A soldier from Bareilly, Bakht Khan took charge of a large force of fighters who came to Delhi. An old zamindar, Kunwar Singh in Bihar, joined the rebel sepoys and fought with the British for several months.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions

JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions History Chapter 4 Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Prasanna

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Solutions History Chapter 4 Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age

JAC Class 8th History Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age InText Questions and Answers

Page 42

Question 1.
Look carefully at the tasks that Baiga men and women did Do you see any pattern? What were the differences in the types of work that they were expected to perform?
Answer:
The women and men shares equal responsibility of work. Like in all the tribes, men do difficult and dangerous tasks like hunting and cutting trees etc, whereas women are generally restricted to agriculture activities and household chores.

The Baiga tribes practice shifting cultivation in forest area and live a nomadic life. They are also woodsman and good hunters.
Men and women share the full responsibility for household chores like cooking, fishing, and woodcutting except hunting.
They derive income from bamboo products, sale of honey, and by hiring themselves out as labourers.

Page 47

Question 2.
Find out whether the conditions of work in the mines have changed now. Check how many people die in mines every year, and what are the reasons for their death.
Answer:
The conditions of work in the mines have not changed much now. Thousands of people die in mines every year due to the following reasons:

Collapse of safety equipments
Flooding in the coal mines
Emission of poisonous gas
Breaking out of fire in the mines.

Page 50

Imagine you are a jhum cultivator living in a forest village in the nineteenth century. You have just been told that the land you were born on no longer belongs to you. In a meeting with British officials you try to explain the kinds of problems you face. What would you say?
Answer:
A Jhum cultivator living in forest villages in the 19th century and on the verge of being evicted from the land they have been living in for generations, will tell British officials about the problems they will face upon the prohibitions.

The Jhum cultivators will tell the British officials about their inability to procure land for cultivation owing to their poor economic conditions. They will also tell about their lack of knowledge of other cultivation methods, other than shifting cultivation. In the face of ban on shifting cultivation, they will face intense lack of food leading to starvation, and even death.

JAC Class 8th History Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age Textbook Questions and Answers

( Let’s Recall)

Question 1.
Fill in the blanks:
(a) The British described the tribal people as …….
(b) The method of sowing seeds in jhum cultivation is known as……….
(c) The tribal chiefs got………… titles in central India under the British land settlements.
(d) Tribals went to work in the …….. of Assam and the ……… in Bihar.
Answer:
(a) wild and savage
(b) broadcasting
(c) land
(d) tea plantations; coal mines

Question 2.
State whether true or false:
(a) Jhum cultivators plough the land and sow seeds.
(b) Cocoons were bought from the Santhals and sold by the traders at five times the purchase price.
(c) Birsa urged his followers to purify themselves, give up drinking liquor and stop believing in witchcraft and sorcery.
(d) The British wanted to preserve the tribal way of life.
Answer:
(a) False
(b) True
(c) True
(d) False

(Let’s Discuss)

Question 3.
What problems did shifting cultivators face under British rule?
Answer:
Problems faced by shifting cultivators under British rule were as follows:
(i) For administrative and economic reason, the British wanted the jhum cultivators to settle down and become peasant cultivators. The British effort to settle jhum cultivators was not very successful. Settled plough cultivation is not easy in areas where water is scarce and the soil is dry. In fact, jhum cultivators who took to plough cultivation often suffered since their fields did not produce good yields.

(ii) The life of shifting cultivators was directly connected to the forest. So, changes in forest laws had a considerable effect on their lives. The British extended their control over all forests and declared that forests were state property. In these forests people were not allowed to move freely, practise jhum cultivation, collect fruits, or hunt animals. Many were therefore forced to move to other areas in search of work and livelihood

Question 4.
How did the powers of tribal chiefs change under colonial rule?
Answer:
Under British rule, the functions and powers of the tribal chiefs changed considerably. They were allowed to keep their land titles over a cluster of villages and rent out lands, but they lost much of their administrative power and were forced to follow laws made by British officials in Indi(a) They also had to pay tribute to the British, and discipline the tribal groups on behalf of the British.
They lost the authority they had earlier enjoyed amongst their people, and were unable to fulfil their traditional functions.

Question 5.
What accounts for the anger of the tribals against the dikus?
Answer:
The following facts account for the anger of the tribals against the dikus were:

The British had the land policies which were destroying their traditional land system.
Hindu landlords and moneylenders were taking over their land
Their traditional culture were criticized by the missionaries.

Question 6.
What was Birsa’s vision of a golden age? Why do you think such a vision appealed to the people of the region?
Answer:
Birsa’s vision of a golden age was an age of truth in which like the past, the tribal people would have a good life, tap natural spring, construct embankments, plant trees and orchards and practice cultivation to earn their living. He spoke about an age in which people ‘ will not kill and harm one another and would live an honest life. He also had a vision of a reformed tribal society in which there was no place for vices such as uncleanliness, witchcraft, liquor and outside forces like moneylenders, missionaries, traders, landlords. Such a vision appealed to the people of the region because all the vices and outside influences about which Birsa talked were indeed thought by everyone as the main root cause of their misery and suffering.

(Let’s Do)

Question 7.
Find out from your parents, friends or teachers, the names of some heroes of other tribal revolts in the twentieth century. Write their story in your own words.
Answer:
Jatra Oraon:
He was a tribal freedom fighter from the Chhotanagpur region is the present day state of Jharkhan(d) During his leadership Oraon movement against the British colonial rule during 1914-19. He fought for Oraon Raj. He criticised liquor drinking and superstitious practices among Oraons. His religious movement gave way to a “no-rent payment” campaign. Jatra declared that his followers should stop ploughing the field of landlords and not work anymore as coolies or labourers for non-Oraons or for the government.

He also questioned the traditional leadership of the pahans and mahtos the village headmen. The basic idea behind this movement was that land was a gift of God and that no one had the right to interfere with the tribals right over lan(d) Jatra, along with his leading disciples was arrested in 1814. After his release, he abandoned the leadership of the movement. Later he came in contact with Gandhi and joined the Non-Cooperation Movement against the British.

Rani Gaidinliu:
Rani Gaidinliu was bom in the present-day state of Manipur. At the age of 13, she joined in the Indian freedom struggle with Haipou Jadonang. Jadonang was the political and spiritual leader of Nag(a) Jadonang started a movement to drive away the British from Manipur. He was captured and hanged by the British. After the death of her Gum, Gaidinliu assumed leadership of the movement. The British tried to suppress the movement. Rani went undergroun(d) But, very soon she was arrested in 1932. She was sent to jail. Gaidinliu was released after India gained its independence. She was honored with Tamrapatr(a) and Padma Bhushan awards, Jawaharlal Nehru called her ‘Rani’ of the Nagas. She passed away on February 17, 1993.

Question 8.
Choose any tribal group living in India today. Find out about their customs and way of life, and how their lives have changed in the last 50 years.
Answer:
Gaddis:
Gaddis are a pastoral tribe of Himachal Pardesh. They are shepherds by occupation. Gaddi women are very hardworking. They cut grasses and carry them to distant places and even climb mountains, to their home. Gaddi have their own traditional dance form. In this form, a couple dances for a while and is later replaced by another couple. The onlookers sing and clap to encourage the dancers. Due to the conversion of pasture lands into grazing lands and tax on pastures and animals, they suffered a lot during the British rule. Their conditions did not become ‘ good till independence. However, after the independence, Gaddis were restored with their pasture lands and grazing tax was abolishe(d) The Government has begun various welfare schemes. They have also been provided reservation.

JAC Class 8th History Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age Important Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1.
The color of the flag raised by Mundas as a symbol of Birsa Raj
(a) White flag
(b) Red flag
(c) Green flag
(d) Orange flag
Answer:
(a) White flag

Question 2.
The Khonds were from
(a) Jharkhand
(b) Punjab
(c) Madhya Pradesh
(d) Odisha (earlier Orissa)
Answer:
(d) Odisha (earlier Orissa)

Question 3.
Flower/s which were used to colour clothes and leather was/ were
(a) Kusum
(b) Palash
(c) Rose
(d) Both a and b
Answer:
(d) Both a and b

Question 4.
The shepherds of Kullu were
(a) Santhals
(b) Van Gujjars
(c) Gaddis
(d) Baigas
Answer:
(c) Gaddis

Question 5.
The Santhals reared .
(a) sheep
(b) cocoon
(c) yak
(d) none of these
Answer:
(b) cocoon

Question 6.
Mahua is:
(a) stem of a tree.
(b) a flower that is eaten or used to make alcohol.
(c) root of a tree.
(d) leaves of a tree.
Answer:
(b) a flower that is eaten or used to make alcohol.

Question 7.
Birsa belonged to the tribe.
(a) Santhals
(b) Kols
(c) Mundas
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) Mundas

Question 8.
The British saw settled tribal groups such as the and Santhals as more civilized than hunter gatherers or shifting cultivators.
(a) Gonds
(b) Mundas
(c) Kols
(d) Kandhas
Answer:
(a) Gonds

Question 9.
Bakarwals are from…..
(a) Bihar
(b) Gujrat
(c) Punjab
(d) Kashmir
Answer:
(d) Kashmir

Question 10.
Bewar a term used in Madhya Pradesh for…..
(a) rearing
(b) shifting cultivation
(c) hunting
(d) both a and b
Answer:
(b) shifting cultivation

Very Short Answer Type Question

Question 1.
Who were called as Mundas?
Answer:
A tribal group that lived in Chottanagpur were called as Mundas.

Question 2.
Birsa belonged to which village and state?
Answer:
Birsa belonged to a village known as Chottanagpur in Bihar(now Jharkhand).

Question 3.
Jhum cultivation is known by which name?
Answer:
Jhum cultivation is also known as shifting cultivation.

Question 4.
When and where was the forest satyagraha started?
Answer:
The forest satyagraha started in 1930s in the Central Provinces.

Question 5. It was below the dignity of which tribe to become a labourer?
Answer:
It was below the dignity of a Baiga tribe to become a labourer.

Question 6.
The British want tribal groups to settle down and become peasant cultivators. Why?
Answer:
The British wanted the tribal groups to settle down and become peasant cultivators because settled peasants were easier to control and administer than people who were always on the move.

Question 7.
Which leaves are used for making plates by the Dongria Kandha women of Orissa?
Answer:
Pandanus leaves leaves are used for making plates by the Dongria Kandha women of Orissa

Question 8.
What do you mean by fallow field?
Answer:
A field which is left uncultivated for a while so that the soil recovers fertility is called as fallow field

Question 9.
Who were the outsiders being referred to as dikus?
Answer:
The outsiders who were being referred to as dikus were missionaries, moneylenders, Hindu landlords, and the British government.

Question 10.
Why was Birsa found guilty?
Answer:
In 1895, British arrested Birsa and declared him guilty on charges of rioting and jailed him for two years.

Short Answer Type Question

Question 1.
Name the five tribes found in India
Answer:
The five tribes found in India are as follows:

The Van Gujjars of the Punjab hills,
The Labadis of Andhra Pradesh,
The Gaddis of Kulu,
The Bakarwals of Kashmir
Santhals ofHazaribagh (Jharkhand).

Question 2.
British officials see settled tribal groups in different way to those who lived in the forest. How?
Answer:
British officials saw settled tribal groups such as the Gonds and Santhals as more civilised than hunter gatherers or shifting cultivators. Those who lived in the forests were considered to be wild and savage and hence, they needed to be settled and civilized

Question 3.
What are the different types of activities where tribal people were involved?
Answer:
The different types of activities where tribal people were involved are as follows:

Jhum cultivators or shifting cultivators
Hunters and gatherers
Herded animals
Some took to settled cultivation

Question 4.
What was the importance of Birsa movement?
Answer:
The importance of Birsa movement were in the following ways:
The movement forced the colonial government to introduce laws so that the land of the tribals could not be easily taken over by the outsiders or dikus. The movement also showed that the tribal people had the capacity to protest against injustice and express their anger against British rule.

Question 5.
What are the features of tribal people?
Answer:
The features of tribal people were as follows:

Most tribal people had customs and rituals that were very different from those laid down by Brahmans.
The tribal people’s societies also did not have the sharp social divisions that were characteristic of caste societies.
All those who belonged to the same tribe thought of themselves as sharing common ties of kinship.

Question 6:
The silk growers (Santhals) of Jharkhand faced problem during the nineteenth century. What was it?
Answer:
The Santhals reared cocoons in Hazaribagh(now in Jharkhand). The traders dealing in silk sent their agents who gave loans to the tribal people and collected the cocoons. The growers were paid only ? 3 to ? 4 for a thousand cocoons. These were exported to Burdwan or Gaya where they were sold at five times the price. The middlemen made huge profits as he arranged deals between the exporters and silk growers. Hence, the silk growers earned very little and nominal amount.

Question 7.
Why was the British effort to settle jhum cultivators not very successful?
Answer:
The British efforts to settle jhum cultivators not very successful because jhum cultivators who took to plough cultivation often suffered since their fields did not produce good yields. The jhum cultivators in northeast India insisted on continuing with their traditional practice. It was difficult to carry on settled plough cultivation in areas where water is scarce and the soil is very dry. Hence, the British faced widespread protests and therefore, they allowed them to carry on shifting cultivation in some parts of the forest.

Question 8.
What problem did the British face after they brought changes in forest laws? Did they solve this problem? How?
Answer:
The British faced many problems after they brought changes in forest laws. They stopped the tribal people from living inside forests. They lost labour force because most of the jhum cultivators moved to other areas in search of work. Yes, British officials solved this problem by giving jhum cultivators small patches of land in the forests and allowing them to cultivate these on the condition that those who lived in villages would have to provide labour to the Forest Department and look after the forests. The Forest Department established forest villages in many regions to ensure a regular supply of cheap labour.

Question 9.
The tribals consider the moneylenders as the cause of their misery. Why?
Answer:
The tribals consider the moneylenders as the cause of their misery because tribals took loans from the moneylenders to meet their cash requirements. But these moneylenders charged high interest rate on these loans leading to debt and poverty of the tribal.

Question 10.
What were the usual chores of tribes during the month of Baisakh?
Answer:
The usual chores of tribes during the month of Baisakh were that during this month the burning of forests took place where women gathered unbumt wood to bum. Men continued to hunt close to the village.

Question 11.
Discuss the tribal group’s trade activities in the nineteenth century. How did they come to see traders as Dikus and enemies?
Answer:
Tribal groups were depended on moneylenders and traders as they often needed money to buy and sell goods that were produced within the locality. Traders sold their goods at high prices. Moneylenders gave loans to the tribes which met their cash needs adding to what they earned but as the interest charges were high on the loans most of the tribal people were indebted and lived in poverty. Hence, tribal groups came to see the moneylenders and traders as evil outsiders and the cause of their misery.

Long Answer Type Question

Question 1:
How did different tribal groups earn their livelihood?
Answer:
Tribal people in different parts of India were involved in a variety of activities. The different tribal groups earn their livelihood in following ways:

Some of them practiced jhum cultivation, also known as shifting cultivation. This was done on small patches of land mostly in forests.
In many regions, tribal groups earn their livelihood by hunting animals and gathering forest produce. They saw forests as essential for survival. The Khonds were such a community living in the forests of Orissa (now Odisha).
Many tribal groups lived by herding and rearing animals. They were pastoralists who moved with their herds of cattle or sheep according to the seasons. When the grass in one place was exhausted, they moved to another area
Many from within the tribal groups had begun settling down and cultivating their fields in one place year after year instead of moving from place to place.

Question 2.
Discuss the problems which the shifting cultivators face under British rule.
Answer:
The problems faced by shifting cultivators under British rule were as follows:

(i) For administrative and economic reason, the British wanted the jhum cultivators to settle down and become peasant cultivators. The British effort to settle jhum cultivators was not very successful as settled plough cultivation is not easy in areas where water is scarce and the soil is dry. In fact, jhum cultivators who took to plough cultivation often suffered since their fields did not produce good yields.

(ii) The life of jhum cultivators was directly connected to the forest. So changes in forest laws had a major effect on their lives. The British extended their control over all forests and declared that forests were state property. In these forests, people were not allowed to move freely, practise jhum cultivation, collect fruits, or hunt animals. Many were therefore forced to move to other areas in search of work and livelihood

JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 4 Agriculture

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 4 Agriculture

→ Three types of economic activities are involved in transformation from a plant to a finished product. These are primary, secondary and tertiary activities.

Agriculture, fishing and gathering are examples of primary activities. It includes all those connected with extraction and production of natural resources.
Manufacturing of steel, baking of bread and weaving of cloth are examples of secondary activity. It is concerned with the processing of the primary resources.
Transport, trade, banking, insurance and advertising are examples of tertiary activities. These provide support to the primary and secondary sectors through services.
In the world, 50 per cent of persons are engaged in agricultural activity. Two-thirds of India’s population is still dependent on agriculture.
The land on which the crops are grown is known as arable land. Favourable topography of soil and climate are vital for agricultural activity.

→ Farm System:

The important inputs in agriculture or farming are seeds, fertilisers, machinery and labour.
Ploughing, sowing, irrigation, weeding and harvesting are other operations involved.
The outputs from the system include crops, wool, dairy and poultry products.

→ Types of Farming:
Farming is categorised into two main types. These are subsistence farming and commercial farming.

→ Subsistence Farming:

This type of farming is practised to meet the needs of the farmer’s family.
Subsistence farming can be categorised as intensive subsistence and primitive subsistence farming.

→ Intensive Subsistence Farming:

In this type, the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour.
Rice is the main crop. Other crops include wheat, maize, pulses and oilseeds.
It is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon regions of south, southeast and east Asia.

→ Primitive Subsistence Farming:

It can be categorised in shifting cultivation and nomadic herding.
Shifting cultivation is also known as ‘slash and bum’ agriculture.
It is practised in the thickly forested areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of south-east Asia and north-east India.
These are the areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of vegetation.
Crops like maize, yam, potatoes and cassava are grown.
Once the soil loses its fertility, the land is abandoned and the cultivator moves to a new plot.

→ Nomadic herding is the type of farming where herdsmen move from place to place with their animals for fodder and water, along defined routes. Due to climatic constraints and terrain, this type of movement arises.

Commonly reared animals are sheep, camel, yak and goats.
They provide milk, meat, wool, hides and other products to the herders and their families.
It is practised in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India, like Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir.

→ Commercial Farming:

In this type of farming, crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in market.
Commercial farming is categorised in three types: commercial grain farming, mixed farming and plantation agriculture.

→ Commercial grain farming crops are grown for commercial purpose.

Commercially grown grains are wheat and maize.
Major areas are temperate grasslands of North America, Europe and Asia.

→ Mixed farming:

In this type of farming, the land is used for growing food and fodder crops and rearing livestock,
Major areas are in Europe, eastern USA, Argentina, south-east
Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

→ Plantation agriculture:

In this type of farming, single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton are grown.
Large amount of labour and capital are required. Transport network is essential for such farming.
Majorly they are found in the tropical regions of the world. Some of the examples are rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in India and Sri Lanka.

→ Major Crops:

Major food crops are wheat, rice, maize and millets. Jute and cotton are fibre crops. Important beverage crops are tea and coffee.
Crops are grown to meet the requirements of the growing population.

→ Rice:

It is the major food crop of the world.
It is the staple diet of the tropical and sub¬tropical regions.
China, India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt are the major producers of rice.
It needs high temperature, high humidity and rainfall. It grows best in alluvial clayey soil.

→ Wheat:

It requires moderate temperature and rainfall during growing season and bright sunshine at the time of harvest.
USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia and India are the leading producers of wheat. In India it is grown in winter.

→ Millets:

Millets are also known as coarse grains. It includes jowar, bajra and ragi.
It can be grown on less fertile and sandy soils. It needs low rainfall and high to moderate temperature and adequate rainfall.
Leading producers are India, Nigeria, China and Niger.

→ Maize:

It requires moderate temperature, rainfall and lots of sunshine and fertile soil.
North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, and Mexico are the producers of maize.

→ Cotton:

It requires high temperature, light rainfall, 210 frost-free days and bright sunshine for its growth.
It grows best on black and alluvial soils.
The leading producers of cotton are China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil and Egypt.

→ Jute:

It is also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’.
It requires high temperature, heavy rainfall and humid climate and grows well on alluvial soil.
The leading producers of jute are India and Bangladesh.

→ Coffee:

It requires warm and wet climate and well drained loamy soil.
The leading producer is Brazil followed by Columbia and India.

→ Tea:

It requires cool climate and well-distributed high rainfall throughout the year for the growth of its tender leaves.
Kenya, India, China, Sri Lanka produce the best quality tea in the world.

→ Agricultural Development:

It refers to efforts made to increase farm production in order to meet the growing demand of increasing population.
Another aspect of agricultural development is mechanisation of agriculture.
The major aim of agricultural development is to increase food security.
Developing countries which has large populations usually practice intensive agriculture.
Larger holdings are more suitable for commercial agriculture as in USA, Canada and Australia.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes History Chapter 7 Civilising the Native, Educating the Nation

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes History Chapter 7 Civilising the Native, Educating the Nation

→ How the British saw Education The tradition of Orientalism

William Jones was appointment as a junior judge at the Supreme Court that the Company had set up in Calcutta. In addition to being an expert in law, Jones was a linguist.
He had studied Greek and Latin at Oxford, knew French and English and also had learnt Arabic and Persian.
He also learnt Sanskrit language.
Englishmen like Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed were also busy discovering the ancient Indian heritage and mastering Indian languages and translating Sanskrit and Persian works into English.
Together with them, Jones set up the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and started a journal called Asiatick Researches.
Jones and Colebrooke shared a deep respect for ancient cultures, both of India and the West.
They felt that indian civilisation had attained its glory in the ancient past but had subsequently declined.
In order to understand India it was necessary to discover the sacred and legal texts that were produced in the ancient period.
This project which was done by Kones and Civilising the “Native”, Educating the Nation Colebrooke believed that would not only help the British leam from Indian culture but it would also help Indians rediscover their own heritage and understand the lost glories of their past.

→ In this process, the British would become the guardians of Indian culture as well as its masters.

British felt that institutions should be set up to encourage the study of ancient Indian texts and teach Sanskrit and Persian literature and poetry.
The officials also thought that Hindus and Muslims ought to be taught what they were already familiar with and what they valued and treasured, not subjects that were alien to them.
They believed in this way that they could win a place in the hearts of the “natives” and only then could the alien rulers expect to be respected by their subjects.
With this object in view a madrasa was set up in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of Arabic, Persian and Islamic law.
The Hindu College was established in Benaras in 1791 to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts that would be useful for the administration of the country.
But many were very strong in their criticism of the Orientalists.

→ “Grave errors of the East”

From the early nineteenth century many British officials began to criticise the Orientalist vision of learning and said that knowledge of the East was full of errors and unscientific thought. Eastern literature was non-serious and light-hearted.
James Mill was one of those who attacked the Orientalists. He said that the British effort should not be to teach what the natives wanted or what they respected in order to please them and ‘win a place in their heart’.
By the 1830s, the attack on the Orientalists became sharper. One of the most outspoken and influential of such critics of the time was Thomas Babington Macaulay.
Macaulay said that who could deny ‘a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia’.
Macaulay emphasised on teaching of English could thus be a way of civilising people, changing their tastes, values and culture.
Following Macaulay’s minute, the English Education Act of 1835 was introduced.
The decision was to make English the medium of instruction for higher education and to stop the promotion of Oriental institutions such as the Calcutta Madrasa and Benaras Sanskrit College.

→ Education for commerce

In 1854, the Court of Directors of the East India Company in London sent an educational despatch to the Governor- General in India.
It was issued by Charles Wood who was the President of the Board of Control of the Company and it has come to be known as Wood’s Despatch.
One of the practical uses the Despatch pointed to was economic.
Introducing Indians to European ways of life would change their tastes and desires and create a demand for British goods.
Wood’s Despatch also argued that European learning would improve the moral character of Indians. It would make them truthful and honest and thus supply the Company with civil servants who could be trusted and depended upon.
Several measures were introduced by the British. One of them was education departments of the government were set up to extend control over all matters regarding education.
In 1857, while the sepoys rose in revolt in Meerut and Delhi, universities were being established in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay.

→ What Happened to the Local Schools? The report of William Adam

In the 1830s, William Adam, a Scottish missionary had been asked by the Company to report on the progress of education in vernacular schools.
He found that there were over 1 lakh pathshalas in Bengal and Bihar.
These institutions were set up by wealthy people or the local community. At times they were started by a teacher {guru).
These were small institutions with no more than 20 students each.
There were no fixed fee, no printed books, no separate school building, no benches or chairs, no blackboards, no system of separate classes, no roll call registers, no annual examinations and no regular timetable.
In some places, classes were held under a banyan tree and in other places in the comer of a village shop or temple, or at the guru s home.
The rich had to pay more fees than the poor.
Teaching was oral and the guru decided what to teach in accordance with the needs of the students.
The guru interacted separately with groups of children with different levels of learning.
Adam also discovered that this flexible system was suited to local needs.

→ New routines, new rules

After 1854, the Company decided to improve the system of vernacular education. It felt that this could be done by introducing order within the system, imposing routines, establishing rules, ensuring regular inspections.
The Company appointed a number of government pandits. The task of the pandit was to visit the pathshalas and by to improve the standard of teaching.
Teaching was now to be based on textbooks and learning was to be tested through a system of annual examination.
Students were asked to pay a regular fee, attend regular classes, sit on fixed seats and obey the new rules of discipline.
Pathshalas which accepted the new rules were supported through government grants. Those who were unwilling to work within the new system received no government support.
The new rules and routines had another consequence on poor families. Inability to attend school came to be seen as indiscipline as evidence of the lack of desire to learn.

→ The Agenda for a National Education

From the early nineteenth century many thinkers from different parts of India began to talk of the need for a wider spread of education.
Impressed with the developments in Europe, some Indians felt that Western education would help modernise India.
However, there were other Indians who reacted against Western education.
Civilising the “Native”, Educating the Nation Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore were two such individuals.

→ “English education has enslaved us”

Mahatma Gandhi argued that colonial education created a sense of inferiority in the minds of Indians.
Mahatma Gandhi wanted an education that could help Indians recover their sense of dignity and self-respect.
During the national movement he urged students to leave educational institutions in order to show to the British that Indians were no longer willing to be enslaved.
Mahatma Gandhi strongly felt that Indian languages ought to be the medium of teaching.
Mahatma Gandhi said that western education focused on reading and writing rather than oral knowledge as it valued textbooks rather than lived experience and practical knowledge.
He argued that education ought to develop a person’s mind and soul.
People had to work with their hands, leam a craft and know how different things operated. This would develop their mind and their capacity to understand.

→ Tagore’s “abode of peace”

Rabindranath Tagore started the institution in 1901.
The experience of his school days in Calcutta shaped Tagore’s ideas of education.
According to Tagore, the existing schools killed the natural desire of the child to be creative, her sense of wonder.
He chose to set up his school 100 kilometres away from Calcutta, in a rural setting.
He saw it as an “abode of peace” (Santiniketan) where living in harmony with nature, children could cultivate their natural creativity.
Gandhiji was highly critical of Western civ-ilisation and its worship of machines and technology. But, Tagore wanted to com¬bine elements of modem Western civilisa¬tion with what he saw as the best within Indian tradition.
Tagore emphasised the need to teach sci¬ence and technology at Santiniketan along with art, music and dance.
Some thinkers wanted changes within the system set up by the British and felt that the system could be extended so as to include wider sections of people.
Others urged that alternative systems could be created so that people were educated into a culture that was truly national.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 2 Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 2 Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources

→ Mamba and Peter stay in two different parts of the world and lead very different lives. This difference is because of the differences in the quality of land, soil, water, natural vegetation, animals and the usage of technology. The availability of such resources is the main reason places differ from each other.

→ Land:

One of the most important natural resources is Land.
Land covers only about thirty per cent of the total area of the earth’s surface and all parts of this small area are not habitable.
Due to varied characteristics of land and climate there is uneven distribution of population in different parts of the world.
Plains and river valleys are suitable land for agriculture. Hence, these are the densely populated areas of the world.

→ Land Use:

Land is used for different causes and purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses, roads and setting up of industries.
Certain physical factors such as topography, soil, climate, minerals and availability of water determines the use of land.
Other important determinants of land use pattern are human factors such as population and technology.
Land can be divided into two categories on the basis of ownership as – private land and community land.
Private land is owned by individuals and community land is owned by the community for common uses like collection of fodder, fruits, nuts or medicinal herbs. The community lands are also known as common property resources.
The major threats to the environment because of the expansion of agriculture and construction activities and proceedings are land degradation, landslides, soil erosion, and desertification.

→ Conservation of Land Resource:
The common methods used to conserve land resources are afforestation, land reclamation, regulated use of chemical pesticide and fertilisers and checks on overgrazing land.

→ Soil:

Soil is the thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the earth and it is very closely linked to land.
Category of soil is determined the landforms.
Organic matter, minerals and weathered rocks found on the earth forms the soil.
The right mix of minerals and organic matter make the soil fertile.

→ Factors of Soil Formation:
The nature of the parent rock and climatic factors are the major factors of soil formation. The topography, role of organic material and time taken for the composition of soil formation are the other factors. Though they all differ from place to place.

→ Degradation of Soil and Conservation Measures:

The major threats to soil are soil erosion and depletion.
Soil degradation happens due to deforestation, overgrazing, overuse of chemical feritilisers or pesticides, rain wash, landslides and floods.

→ Few methods of soil conservation are:

Mulching: The bare ground between plants is covered with a layer of organic matter like straw and it helps to retain soil moisture.
Contour barriers: Along contours, stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers. To collect water, trenches are made in front of the barriers.
Rock dam: Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of water and it prevents gullies and further soil loss.
Terrace farming: Terraces or broad flat steps are made on the steep slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow crops. This reduce the surface runoff and soil erosion.
Intercropping: Different types of crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect the soil from rain wash.
Contour ploughing: To form a natural barrier, ploughing is done parallel to the contours of a hill slope for water to flow down the slope.
Shelter belts: Mainly in the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind movement to protect soil cover.

→ Water:

Earth is also known as an ‘water planet’ because three-fourths of the earth’s surface is covered with water.
The ocean water is not fit for human consumption as it is saline.
Fresh water accounts for only about 2.7 per cent. In this 2.7 per cent, about 70 per cent of this occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica, Greenland and mountain regions and these are inaccessible due to their locations.
Only 1 per cent of freshwater is available and fit for human use. It is found in the form of ground water, as surface water in rivers and lakes and as water vapour in the atmosphere.
The most precious substance on earth is fresh water. Its total volume remains constant.
Humans use huge amounts of water for drinking, washing but also in the process of production.
The main reasons leading to shortages in supply of fresh water is either due to drying up of water sources or water pollution.

→ Problems of Water Availability:

Scarcity of water is present in many regions of the world. Mostly countries located in climatic zones are most susceptible to droughts, face great problems of water scarcity.
Water shortage may be a result of variation in seasonal or annual precipitation or by over-exploitation and contamination of water sources.

→ Conservation of Water Resources:

World is facing a major problem in accessing the clean and adequate water sources.
To conserve this valuable resource, steps need to be taken.
The major contaminants in waterbodies are the discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial effluents and pollute water with nitrates, metals and pesticides.
Water pollution can be controlled by treating these effluents suitably before releasing them in waterbodies.
Another method to save surface runoff is water harvesting.
Drip or trickle irrigation is very useful in dry regions with high rates of evaporation.

→ Natural Vegetation and Wildlife:

Natural vegetation and wildlife exist only in the narrow zone of contact between the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere and that is known as biosphere.
The life supporting system is called as the ecosystem. Here, living beings are inter-related and interdependent on each other for survival.
There are innumerable uses of plants. They provide us with timber, give shelter to animals, produce oxygen, protects soils essentials for growing crops, help in storage of underground water, give us fruits, nuts, latex, turpentine oil, gum, medicinal plants and the paper.
Animals big or small, all are integral and essential in maintaining balance in the ecosystem.
A vital cleanser of the environment are the vultures and considered as scavengers because they have the ability to feed on dead livestock.
Animals provide us milk, meat, hides and wool.
Bees and birds have an important role to play as decomposers in the ecosystem.

→ Distribution of Natural Vegetation:

Temperature and moisture are the factors for the growth of vegetation.
The major vegetation types of the world are grouped as forests, grasslands, scrubs and tundra.
In regions where heavy rainfall occurs, huge trees may thrive.
In the regions of moderate rainfall, short stunted trees and grasses grow forming the grasslands of the world.
In the regions of low rainfall, thorny shrubs and scrubs grow.
Tundra vegetation of cold Polar Regions comprise of mosses and lichens.
Population is growing in rapid way and to feed the growing numbers, large regions of forests have been cleared to grow crops. Forests are vanishing rapidly. An urgent need has come up to protect from destruction this valuable resource.

→ Conservation of Natural Vegetation and Wildlife:

Many species have become endangered and some are on the verge of extinction.
Some of the human and natural factors which gives momentum to the process of extinction of these resources are deforestation, soil erosion, constructional activities, forest fires, tsunami and landslides.
Another major and important issue is poaching. The animals are poached for collection and illegal trade of hides, skins, nails, teeth, horns as well as feathers.
The animals which are poached are tiger, lion, elephant, deer, blackbuck, crocodile, rhinoceros, snow leopard, ostrich and peacock. We need to create awareness to conserve these animals.
To protect our natural vegetation and wildlife, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere reserves are made.
Awareness programmes such as social forestry and Vanainohatasava should be encouraged at the regional and community level.
School children should also be encouraged to gain more knowledge about such awareness programs and try to conserve it.
Laws has been passed in many countries against the trade as well as killing of birds and animals. In India, killing lions, tigers, deer, great Indian bustards and peacocks is illegal.
Lists of several species of animals and birds in which trade is prohibited has been established by an international convention CITES.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes History Chapter 6 Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes History Chapter 6 Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners

→ Textiles and iron and steel industries were crucial for the industrial revolution in the modem world.

In the nineteenth century, mechanised production of cotton textiles made Britain the foremost industrial nation.
When Britain’s iron and steel industry started growing from the 1850s, Britain came to be known as the “workshop of the world”.
With the growth of industrial production, British industrialists began to see India as a vast and huge market for their industrial products and over time manufactured goods from Britain began flooding India.

→ Indian Textiles and the World Market
Indian textiles had long been renowned both for their fine quality and exquisite # craftsmanship. They were extensively traded in Southeast Asia (Java, Sumatra and Penang) and West and Central Asia.

→ Words tells us histories

European traders began referring to all finely woven textiles as “muslin” – a word that acquired wide currency. They first encountered these fine cotton cloths from India carried by Arab merchants in Mosul in present-day Iraq.
The cotton textiles which the Portuguese took back to Europe along with the spices came to be called “calico” (derived from Calicut) and hence, calico became the general name for all cotton textiles.
In The East India Company’s book, the order in 1730 was for 5,89,000 pieces of cloth.
In the order book, a list of 98 varieties of cotton and silk cloths were mentioned. These were known by their common name in the European trade as piece goods- usually woven cloth pieces that were 20 yards long and 1 yard wide.
Amongst the pieces ordered were printed cotton cloths called chintz, cossaes (or khassa) and bandanna. Chintz is derived from the Hindi word chhint, a cloth with small and colourful flowery designs.
Rich people of England including the Queen herself wore clothes of Indian fabric.
Now a days, the word bandanna refers to any brightly coloured and printed scarf for the neck or head. It originates from the word “bandhna” (Hindi for tying) and referred to a variety of brightly coloured cloth produced through a method of tying and dying.
There were other cloths in the order book that were noted by their place of origin such as Kasimbazar, Patna, Calcutta, Orissa, Charpoore.

→ Indian textiles in European markets

In 1720, the British government enacted a legislation banning the use of printed cotton textiles, chintz in England. This Act was known as the Calico Act.
Competition with Indian textiles also led to a search for technological innovation in England.
In 1764, the spinning jenny was invented by John Kaye which increased the productivity of the traditional spindles.
In 1786, the invention of the steam engine by Richard Arkwright in revolutionised cotton textile weaving.
Cloth could now be woven in immense quantities and cheaply too.
Indian textiles continued to dominate world trade till the end of the eighteenth century.
European trading companies the Dutch, the French and the English made enormous profits out of this flourishing trade.

→ Who were the weavers?

Weavers belonged to communities that specialised in weaving.
The tanti weavers of Bengal, the julahas or momin weavers of north India, sale and kaikollar and devangs of south India are some of the communities famous for weaving.
The charkha and the takli were household spinning instruments. The thread was spun on the charkha and rolled on the takli.
The first stage of production was spinning mostly done by women.
In most communities weaving was a task done by men.
For coloured textiles, the thread was dyed by the dyer who are known as rangrez.
For printed cloth, the weavers needed the help of specialist block printers who are known as chhipigars.

→ The decline of indian textile

Indian textiles had to compete with British textiles in the European and American markets.
Exporting textiles to England also became increasingly difficult since very high duties were imposed on Indian textiles imported into Britain.
Thousands of weavers in India were now thrown out of employment. Bengal weavers were the worst hit.
English and European companies stopped buying Indian goods and their agents no longer gave out advances to weavers to secure supplies.
By the 1880s, two-thirds of all the cotton clothes worn by Indians were made of cloth produced in Britain.
Thousands of rural women who made a living by spinning cotton thread were rendered jobless.
Handloom weaving did not completely die in India because some types of cloths could not be supplied by machines.
Sholapur in western India and Madura in South India emerged as important new centres of weaving in the late nineteenth century.
Mahatma Gandhi urged people to boycott imported textiles and use hand-spun and handwoven cloth and hence khadi gradually became a symbol of nationalism.
In 1931, the Indian National Congress adopted the tricolour flag and the charkha was put at the centre of the flag to represent India.
Many weavers became agricultural labourers.
Some of these weavers also found work in the new cotton mills that were established in Bombay (now Mumbai), Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Nagpur and Kanpur.

→ Cotton mills come up:

In 1854, the first cotton mill in India was set up as a spinning mill in Bombay.
From the early nineteenth century, Bombay had grown as an important port for the export of raw cotton from India to England and China.
By 1900, over 84 mills started operating in Bombay.
The first mill in Ahmedabad was started in 1861. A year later a mill was established in Kanpur in the United Provinces.
In India, the first few decades of its existence, the textile factory industry faced many problems. It found it difficult to compete with the cheap textiles imported from Britain.
The first major spurt in the development of cotton factory production in India was during the First World War when textile imports from Britain declined and Indian factories were called upon to produce cloth for military supplies.

→ The Sword of Tipu Sultan and Wootz Steel:

Tipu’s legendary swords are now part of valuable collections in museums in England.
The sword had an incredibly hard and sharp edge that could easily rip through the opponent’s armour. This quality of the sword came from a special type of high carbon steel called Wootz which was produced all over south India.
A year after Tipu Sultan’s death, Francis Buchanan who toured through Mysore in 1800 has left us an account of the technique by which Wootz steel was produced in many hundreds of smelting furnaces in Mysore.
Wootz is an anglicised version of the Kannada word ukku, Telugu hukku and Tamil and Malayalam urukku which means steel.
Indian Wootz steel fascinated European scientists. Michael Faraday, the legendary scientist and discoverer of electricity and electromagnetism spent four years studying the properties of Indian Wootz (1818-22).

→ Abundant furnaces in villages

In Bihar and Central India, in particular every district had smelters that used local deposits of ore to produce iron which was widely used for the manufacture of implements and tools of daily use.
The furnaces were most often built of clay and sun-dried bricks. The smelting was done by men while women worked the bellows, pumping air that kept the charcoal burning.
By the late nineteenth century, however, the craft of iron smelting was in decline.
Many gave up their craft and looked for other means of livelihood.
The iron smelters had to pay a very high tax to the forest department for every furnace they used and hence their income reduced.
Ironsmiths in India began using the imported iron to manufacture utensils and implements. This inevitably lowered the demand for iron produced by local smelters.

→ Iron and steel factories come up in India

In 1904, in the hot month of April, Charles Weld, an American geologist and Dorabji Tata, the eldest son of Jamsetji Tata, were travelling in Chhattisgarh in search of iron ore deposits.
One day after travelling for many hours in the forests, Weld and Dorabji came upon a small village and found a group of men and women carrying basket loads of iron ore. These people were the Agarias.
Rajhara Hills had one of the finest ores in the world.
The Agarias helped in the discovery of a source of iron ore that would later supply the Bhilai Steel Plant.
A few years later a large area of forest was cleared on the banks of the river Subamarekha to set up the factory and an industrial township known as Jamshedpur. Here there was water near iron ore deposits.
In 1912, the Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) that came up began producing steel.
TISCO was set up at an opportune time. British experts in the Indian Railways were unwilling to believe that good quality steel could be produced in India.
By 1919, the colonial government was buying 90 per cent of the steel manufactured by TISCO. Over time TISCO became the biggest steel industry within the British empire.
As the nationalist movement developed and the industrial class became stronger, the demand for government protection became louder.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 1 Resources

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 1 Resources

→ Any object, substance or material that has utility or usability makes a resource.

The substances which have certain values becomes a resource.
The two important factors that can change substances into resources are time and technology.
Time and technology are related to the needs of the people.
Human beings themselves are the most important resource. It is their ideas, recommendations, knowledge, inventions and discoveries that lead to the creation of more resources in the world.

→ Types of Resources
These are mainly divided into three categories:

Natural resources
Human made resources
Human resources

→ Natural Resources

Natural resources are the resources that are drawn from Nature and used without much alterations.
The natural resources are the air which we inhale, the rivers and lakes, the soils, minerals. These resources are presents of nature to living things and can be used directly.
Sometimes technology may be needed to use a natural resource in the finest manner.
Natural resources can be divided into:
- Renewable resources
- Non-renewable resources

→ Renewable Resources

These are the resources which get renewed or refilled quickly.
Solar energy and wind energy are some of the resources which are unlimited and are unaffected by human activities.
But some renewable resources such as water, soil and forest can affect the living things. In many parts of the world now a days, a major problem has come up. There is a shortage and drying up of natural water.

→ Non-renewable Resources

These are the resources which are present in fixed amount.
These are found inside the earth and take millions of years to form.
Fossil fuels, oil, natural gas, and coal and nuclear energy are some of the non-renewable resources.
In current scenario, around 84% of the total amount of energy used globally comes from fossil fuels.

→ Certain physical factors such as terrain, climate and altitude lead to the distribution of natural resources. Due to the unequal distribution of resources, these factors differ a lot over the earth.

→ Human Made Resources:

Human made resources are those natural resources whose original form has been changed to some other form.
Human beings use natural resources for their needs such as buildings, bridges, roads, etc.
Technology is also one of the forms of this resource.

→ Human Resources:

Knowledge, skill and technology help people to create more resources when they need to do so. Hence, human beings are a special human resource.
Human beings become a valuable resource due to education and health.
Human Resource Development is to enhance and improve the quality and attributes of person’s skills so that they are able to create and generate more resources.

→ Conserving Resources:

Resource conservation means utilising resources veiy carefully and giving them time to get renewed and restore.
Sustainable development means to balance the need to use resources and also preserve them for the future.
Many ways are there to conserve resources such as reducing consumption, recycling and reusing thing.
It is our responsibility and task to ensure that:
- Sustainable use of renewable resources.
- On the earth, the varied range of life is conserved.
- Minimise the damage to natural environmental system.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes History Chapter 5 When People Rebel 1857 and After

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes History Chapter 5 When People Rebel 1857 and After

→ Policies and the People Nawabs lose their power

Since the mid-eighteenth century, nawabs and rajas had seen their power erode. They had gradually lost their authority and honour.
Many ruling families tried to negotiate with the Company to protect their interests. For example, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi wanted the Company to recognise her adopted son as the heir to the kingdom after the death of her husband. Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, pleaded that he be given his father’s pension when the latter died.
Awadh was one of the last territories to be annexed. In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh and in 1856 it was taken over.
In 1849, Governor-General Dalhousie announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the family of the king would be shifted out of the Red Fort and given another place in Delhi to reside in.
In 1856, Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king and after his death none of his descendants would be recognised as kings and they would just be called princes.

→ The peasants and the sepoys

Many peasants and zamindars failed to pay back their loans to the moneylenders and gradually lost the lands they had tilled for generations.
The Indian sepoys in the employ of the Company also had reasons for discontent. They were unhappy about their pay, allowances and conditions of service.
In 1824, the sepoys were told to go to Burma by the sea route to fight for the Company but they refused to follow the order, though they agreed to go by the land route. They were severely punished.
In 1856, the Company passed a new law which stated that every new person who took up employment in the Company’s army had to agree to serve overseas if required.

→ Responses to reforms

Laws were passed to stop the practice of sati and to encourage the remarriage of widows. English-language education was actively promoted.
In 1850, a new law was passed to make conversion to Christianity easier. This law allowed an Indian who had converted to Christianity to inherit the property of his ancestors.
Many Indians began to feel that the British were destroying their religion and their traditional way of life. There were of course other Indians who wanted to change existing social practices.

→ Through the Eyes of the People
Many common people wrote about their experiences about their life.

→ A Mutiny Becomes a Popular Rebellion

A large number of people begin to believe that they have a common enemy and rise up against the enemy at the same time. For such a situation to develop people have to organise, communicate, take initiative and display the confidence to turn the situation around.
In May 1857, the English East India Company faced a massive rebellion that started and threatened the Company’s very presence in India.
From Meerut, sepoys mutinied in several places and a large number of people from different sections of society rose up in rebellion.

→ From Meerut to Delhi

A young soldier, Mangal Pandey was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore on 29 March 1857.
On 9 May 1857, eighty-five sepoys were dismissed from service and sentenced to ten years in jail for disobeying their officers.
On 10 May, the soldiers marched to the jail in Meerut and released the imprisoned sepoys.
They captured guns and ammunition and set fire to the buildings and properties of the British and declared war on the firangis.
The Meerut sepoys rode all night of 10 May to reach Delhi in the early hours next morning. As news of their arrival spread, the regiments stationed in Delhi also rose up in rebellion.
The emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was not quite willing to challenge the mighty
British power but the soldiers persisted. They forced their way into the palace and proclaimed the emperor as their leader.
Bahadur Shah’s major step taken to write a letters to all the chiefs and rulers of the country to come forward and organise a confederacy of Indian states to fight the British had great implications.
The British had not expected this to happen. But Bahadur Shah Zafar’s decision to bless the rebellion changed the entire situation dramatically.

→ The rebellion spreads

Regiment after regiment mutinied and took off to join other troops at nodal points like Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow.
The adopted son of the late Peshwa Baji Rao – Nana Saheb who lived near Kanpur gathered armed forces and expelled the British garrison from the city. He proclaimed himself Peshwa.
In Lucknow, Birjis Qadr, the son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was proclaimed the new Nawab.
Both of them declared that they were the governor under Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar.
In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British along with Tantia Tope, the general of Nana Saheb.
In the Mandla region of Madhya Pradesh, Rani Avantibai Lodhi of Ramgarh raised and led an army of four thousand against the British who had taken over the administration of her state.
A situation of widespread popular rebellion developed in the region of Awadh.
On 6 August 1857, a telegram sent by Lieutenant Colonel Tytler to his Commander-in-Chief expressing the fear felt by the British: “Our men are cowed by the numbers opposed to them and the endless fighting. Every village is held against us, the zamindars have risen to oppose us.”
Many new leaders came up. One of them was Ahmadullah Shah, a maulvi from Faizabad, prophesied that the rule of the British would come to an end soon.
Bakht Khan, a soldier from Bareilly took charge of a large force of fighters who came to Delhi. He became a key military leader of the rebellion.
In Bihar, an old zamindar Kunwar Singh joined the rebel sepoys and battled with the British for many months.

→ The Company Fights Back

The Company reinforcements from England, passed new laws so that the rebels could be convicted with ease and then moved into the storm centres of the revolt.
In September 1857, Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces.
Bahadur Shah Zafar and his wife Begum Zinat Mahal were sent to prison in Rangoon in October 1858. In November 1862, he died in the Rangoon jail.
The recapture of Delhi, however, did not mean that the rebellion died down after that. People continued to resist and battle the British. The British had to fight for two years to suppress the massive forces of popular rebellion.
In March 1858, Lucknow was taken. In June 1858, Rani Lakshmi bai was defeated and killed.
Rani Avantibai who after initial victory in Kheri chose to embrace death when surrounded by the British on all sides.
Tantia Tope escaped to the jungles of central India and continued to fight a guerrilla war with the support of many tribal and peasant leaders. In April 1859, he was captured and killed.
British announced rewards for loyal landholders would be allowed to continue to enjoy traditional rights over their lands.
Those who had rebelled were told that if they submitted to the British and not killed any white people, they would remain safe and their rights and claims to land would not be denied.

→ Aftermath

• By the end of 1859, the British had regained control of the country but they could not carry on ruling the land with the same policies any more.
The important changes that were introduced by the British were:
- The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858 and transferred the powers of the East India Company to the British Crown.
- A member of the British Cabinet was appointed Secretary of State for India and made responsible for all matters related to the governance of India. He was given a council to advise him known as the India Council. The Governor-General of India was given the title of Viceroy.
- All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territory would never be annexed in future and were allowed to pass on their kingdoms to their heirs including adopted sons. But, they were made to acknowledge the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount.
- It was decided that the ratio of Indian soldiers in the army would be reduced and the number of European soldiers would be increased. It was also decided that more soldiers would be recruited from among the Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans instead of recruiting soldiers from Awadh, Bihar, central India and south India.
- The land and property of Muslims was sized with authority on a large scale and they were treated with suspicion and hostility.
- The British decided to respect the customary religious and social practices of the people in India.
- Policies were made to protect landlords and zamindars and give them security of rights over their lands.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 10 Law and Social Justice

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 10 Law and Social Justice

→ To protect people from any kind of exploitation, the government makes certain laws. These laws try to ensure that unfair practices are kept at a minimum in the markets.

Private companies, contractors, business persons normally want to make as much profit as they can.
To ensure that workers are not underpaid, or are paid fairly, there is a law on minimum wages.
The minimum wages are revised upwards eveiy few years.
There are also laws that protect the interests of producers and consumers in the market.
These help ensure that the relations between these three parties – the worker, consumer and producer – are governed in a manner that is not exploitative.
The government has to ensure that these laws are implemented. This means that the law must be enforced. Enforcement becomes even more important when the law seeks to protect the weak from the strong.
Many of these laws have their basis in the Fundamental Rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution.

→ What is a Worker’s Worth?

One reason why foreign companies come to India is for cheap labour.
Wages that the companies pay to workers, say in the U.S.A., are far higher than what they have to pay to workers in poorer countries like India.
Cost cutting can also be done by other more dangerous means. Lower working conditions including lower safety measures are used as ways of cutting costs.
Making use of the workers’ vulnerability, employers ignore safety in workplaces.

→ Enforcement of Safety Laws:

As the lawmaker and enforcer, the government is supposed to ensure that safety laws are implemented.
Instead of protecting the interests of the people, their safety was being disregarded both by the government and by private companies.
With more industries being set up both by local and foreign businesses in India, there is a great need for stronger laws protecting worker’s rights and better enforcement of these laws.

→ New Laws to Protect the Environment:

In 1984, there were veiy few laws protecting the environment in India, and there was hardly any enforcement of these laws.
The environment was treated as a ‘free’ entity and any industry could pollute the air and water without any restrictions.
In response to this pressure from environmental activists and others, in the years following the Bhopal gas tragedy, the Indian government introduced new laws on the environment.
In Subhash Kumar vs. State of Bihar (1991), the Supreme Court held that the Right to Life is a Fundamental Right under Article 21 of the Constitution and it includes the right to the enjoyment of pollution-free water and air for full enjoyment of life.
The government is responsible for setting up laws and procedures that can check pollution, clean rivers and introduce heavy fines for those who pollute.

→ Conclusion:

A major role of the government, is to control the activities of private companies by making, enforcing and upholding laws so as to prevent unfair practices and ensure social justice.
This means that the government has to make ‘appropriate laws’ and also has to enforce the laws.
Laws that are weak and poorly enforced can cause serious harm, as the Bhopal gas tragedy showed.
People must demand stronger laws protecting workers’ interests so that the Right to Life is achieved for all.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes History Chapter 4 Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes History Chapter 4 Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age

→ In 1895, a man named Birsa was seen roaming the forests and villages of Chottanagpur in Jharkhand.

Birsa himself declared that God had appointed him to save his people from trouble, free them from the slavery of dikus (outsiders).
Birsa was bom in a family of Mundas , a tribal group that lived in Chottanagpur. But his followers included other tribals of the region – Santhals and Oraons.

→ How Did Tribal Groups Live?
By the nineteenth century, tribal people in different parts of India were involved in a variety of activities.

→ Some were jhum cultivators

Jhum cultivation means shifting cultivation. This was done on small patches of land mostly in forests.
The cultivators cut the treetops to allow sunlight to reach the ground and burnt the vegetation on the land to clear it for cultivation. They spread the ash from the firing which contained potash to fertilise the soil.
Once the crop was ready and harvested, they moved to another field. A field that had been cultivated once was left fallow for several years.
Shifting cultivators were found in the hilly and forested tracts of north-east and central India. The lives of these tribal people depended on free movement within forests and on being able to use the land and forests for growing their crops.

→ Some were hunters and gatherers

In many regions tribal groups lived by hunting animals and gathering forest produce.
The Khonds were such a community living in the forests of Odisha. They regularly went out on collective hunts and then divided the meat amongst themselves.
They ate fruits and roots collected from the forest and cooked food with the oil they extracted from the seeds of the sal and mahua.
The local weavers and leather workers turned to the Khonds when they needed supplies of kusum and palash flowers to colour their clothes and leather.
At times they exchanged goods, getting what they needed in return for their valuable forest produce. At other times they bought goods with the small amount of earnings they had.
• When supplies of forest produce shrank, tribal people had to increasingly wander around in search of work as labourers. But many of them such as the Baigas of central India were reluctant to do work for others.
for the tribals, market and commerce often meant debt and poverty. They therefore came to see the moneylender and trader as evil outsiders and the cause of their misery.

→ Some herded animals

Many tribal groups lived by herding and rearing animals. They were pastoralists who moved with their herds of cattle or sheep according to the seasons.
The Van Gujjars of the Punjab hills and the Labadis of Andhra Pradesh were cattle herders, the Gaddis of Kulu were shepherds, and the Bakarwals of Kashmir reared goats.

→ Some took to settled cultivation

Even before the nineteenth century, many from within the tribal groups had begun settling down and cultivating their fields in one place year after year.
Most of the tribes had rights on the land • such as the Mundas of Chottanagpur had the
land which belonged to the clan as a whole. All members of the clan were regarded as descendants of the original settlers, who had first cleared the land.
Powerful men often rented out their land instead of cultivating it themselves.
British officials saw settled tribal groups such as the Gonds and Santhals as more civilised than hunter gatherers or shifting cultivators. Those who lived in the forests were considered to be wild and savage, they needed to be settled and civilised.

→ How Did Colonial Rule Affect Tribal Lives?
The lives of tribal groups changed during British rule.

→ What happened to tribal chiefs?

Before the arrival of the British, in many areas the tribal chiefs were important people. They enjoyed a certain amount of economic power and had the right to administer and control their territories.
Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age of the tribal chiefs changed considerably.
They also had to pay tribute to the British and discipline the tribal groups on behalf of the British. They lost the authority they had earlier enjoyed amongst their people and were unable to fulfil their traditional functions.

→ What happened to the shifting cultivators?

The British were uncomfortable with groups who moved about and did not have a fixed home. They wanted tribal groups to settle down and become peasant cultivators.
The British wanted a regular revenue source for the state. So, they introduced land settlements which means they measured the land, defined the rights of each individual to that land and fixed the revenue demand for the state.
The British effort to settle jhum cultivators was not very successful.
Jhum cultivators who took to plough cultivation often suffered since their fields did not produce good yields. So, the jhum cultivators in north-east India insisted on continuing with their traditional practice.

→ Forest laws and their impacts

Changes in forest laws had a considerable effect on tribal lives.
The British extended their control over all forests and declared that forests were state property.
Some forests were classified as Reserved Forests for they produced timber which the British wanted. In these forests people were not allowed to move freely, practice jhum cultivation.
Once the British stopped the tribal people from living inside forests, they faced a problem.
In many regions the Forest Department established forest villages to ensure a regular supply of cheap labour.
The Colonial Officials decided that they would give jhum cultivators small patches of land in the forests and allow them to cultivate these on the condition that those who lived in the villages would have to provide labour to the Forest Department and look after the forests.
Many tribal groups reacted against the colonial forest laws. The revolt of Songram Sangma in 1906 in Assam and the forest satyagraha of the 1930s in the Central Provinces took place.

→ The problem with trade

During the nineteenth century, tribal groups found that traders and moneylenders were coming into the forests more often wanting to buy forest produce offering cash loans and asking them to work for wages.
It took tribal groups some time to understand the consequences of what was happening.
Many tribal groups saw the market and the traders as their main enemies.

→ The search for work

The plight of the tribals who had to go far away from their homes in search of work was even worse.
Tribals were recruited in large numbers to work the tea plantations of Assam and the coal mines of Jharkhand.
They were recruited through contractors who paid them miserably low wages and prevented them from returning home.

→ A Closer Look

Through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, tribal groups in different parts of the country rebelled against the changes in laws, the restrictions on their practices, the new taxes they had to pay and the exploitation by traders and moneylenders.
The Kols rebelled in 1831-32, Santhals rose in revolt in 1855, the Bastar Rebellion in central India broke out in 1910 and the Warli Revolt in Maharashtra in 1940.

→ Birsa Munda

Birsa was bom in the mid-1870s. The son of a poor father, he grew up around the forests of Bohonda, grazing sheep, playing the flute, and dancing in the local akhara.
Birsa heard tales of the Munda uprisings of the past and saw the sirdars (leaders) of the community urging the people to revolt.
Birsa went to the local missionary school and listened to the sermons of missionaries. There too he heard it said that it was possible for the Mundas to attain the Kingdom of Heaven and regain their lost rights.
Birsa also spent some time in the company of a prominent Vaishnav preacher. He wore the sacred thread and began to value the importance of purity and piety.
His movement was aimed at reforming tribal society. He urged the Mundas to give up drinking liquor, clean their village and stop believing in witchcraft and sorcery. He also turned against missionaries and Hindu landlords.
In 1895, Birsa urged his followers to recover their glorious past. He talked of a golden age in the past, a satyug (the age of truth) where Mundas lived a good life, constructed embankments, tapped natural springs, planted trees and orchards, practised cultivation to earn their living.
British officials were worried most about the political aim of the Birsa movement. The movement identified all these forces as the cause of the misery the Mundas were suffering.
British arrested Birsa in 1895, convicted him on charges of rioting and jailed him for two years.
When Birsa was released in 1897 he began touring the villages to gather support. He used traditional symbols and language to rouse people, urging them to destroy “Ravana” (dikus and the Europeans) and establish a kingdom under his leadership.
Birsa’s followers raised the white flag as a symbol of Birsa Raj.
In 1900 Birsa died of cholera and the movement faded out.
The movement was significant in at least two ways. First – it forced the colonial government to introduce laws so that the land of the tribals could not be easily taken over by dikus. Second – it showed once again that the tribal people had the capacity to protest against injustice and express their anger against colonial rule.