Bhagya – Page 2 – Jharkhand Board Solution

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Water

November 16, 2024November 15, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Water

→ The heat of sun causes evaporation of water vapour and when it cools down, it condenses and forms clouds. Then it may fall on the land or sea in the form of rain, snow or sleet.

Water cycle is the process by which water continually changes its form and circulates between oceans and seas, atmosphere and land.
Our earth is like a terrarium. The water which existed centuries ago still exists today.
The fresh water majorly comes from the rivers, ponds, springs and glaciers. The ocean bodies and the seas contains salty or saline water as it contains huge amount of dissolved salts. Most of the salt is of sodium chloride.

→ Distribution of Water bodies:
Three-fourth of the earth surface is covered by water. The following table gives the distribution of water in percentage:

Saline water	Oceans	97.3
Fresh water	Ground water	0.68
	Ice caps	2.0
	Fresh water lakes and Inland seas	0.009
	Salt lakes	0.009
	Atmosphere	0.0019
	Rivers	0.0001
	Total	100.00

→ Ocean Circulation:
In oceans, the movements that occur can be categorised as waves, tides and currents.

→ Waves:

Waves occurs when the water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls alternately.
The winds blows at a very high speed forms huge waves during a storm and causes destruction in an enormous way. An earthquake, a volcanic eruption or underwater landslides may shift large amounts of ocean water. The huge tidal wave is known as tsunami which may be as high as 15 m.
The largest tsunami ever measured was as high as 150 m. and travels at a speed of more than 700 km. per hour.

→ Tides:

A tide is the periodic, regular rise and fall of ocean water twice in a day.
When water covers much of the shore by rising to its highest level then it is high tide. When water falls to its lowest level and recedes from the shore then it is low tide.
On the earth’s surface, the strong gravitational pull exerted by the sun and the moon causes the tides.
When the sun, the moon and the earth are in the same line during the full moon and new moon days then the tides are highest. These type of tides are known as spring tides.
The ocean waters get drawn in diagonally opposite directions by the gravitational pull of sun and earth resulting in low tides when the moon is in its first and last quarter. These type of tides are known as neap tides.
High tides helps in navigation, fishing and to generate electricity in some areas.

→ Ocean Currents:

Streams of water which flows constantly on the ocean surface in definite directions is known as ocean currents. The ocean currents may be warm or cold.
The warm ocean currents emerge near the equator and move towards the poles. The cold ocean currents carry water from polar or higher latitudes to tropical or lower latitudes.
These currents influence the temperature conditions of the area. The Labrador Ocean current is cold current while the Gulf Stream is a warm current.
The areas where a warm and cold current is present, they experience the foggy weather which makes navigation difficult but provides the best fishing grounds.
Types of tides in sea or ocean are flood tide and ebb tide. Flood tide are the rise of sea level and the fall in sea level is called the ebb tide.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Natural Vegetation and Wild Life

November 16, 2024November 15, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Natural Vegetation and Wild Life

→ As their is change in height, the climate also changes and that changes the natural vegetation. The growth of vegetation depends on temperature and moisture. It also depends on factors like slope and thickness of soil.

From place to place, the type and thickness of natural vegetation varies.
Natural vegetation is classified in to three broad categories:
Forests: Grows where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a tree cover. Depending upon all these factors, dense and open forests grown.
Grasslands: Grows in the region of moderate rain.
Shrubs: Thorny shrurbs and scrubs grows in the dry region.
Due to the changes of climatic condition occurs mainly because of the type of natural vegetation.

→ Forests:

Tropical Evergreen Forests
These forests are also known as tropical rainforests. These thick forests are found mainly in the regions- near the equator and close to the tropics. These regions are hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year and no particular dry season, thus the trees do not shed their leaves altogether. Hence, they are called evergreen.
Rosewood, ebony, mahogany are common trees are also known as hardwood trees.

→ Tropical Deciduous Forests

These are the monsoon forests which are found in the large part of India, northern Australia and in central America. These regions experience seasonal changes and trees shed their leaves in the dry season to conserve water.
The trees found in these forests are sal, teak, neem and s his ham. These are extremely useful for making furniture, transport and constructional materials.
The common animals of these regions are tigers, lions, elephants, langoors and monkeys.

→ Temperate Evergreen Forests

These forests are located in the mid latitudinal coastal region.
They are found along the eastern margin of the continents, e.g., in southeast USA, South China and in South East Brazil.
Trees found are oak, pine, eucalyptus, etc. which are both hard and soft wood trees.

→ Temperate Deciduous Forests

These are found in the north eastern part of USA, China, New Zealand, Chile and in the coastal regions of Western Europe,
They shed their leaves in the dry season.
The trees found are oak, ash, beech, etc.
The animals found are deer, foxes, wolves.
Birds like pheasants, monals are found here.

→ Mediterranean Vegetation

The west and south west margins of the continents are different. They have Mediterranean vegetation.
It is found in the areas around the Mediterranean sea in Europe, Africa and Asia.
This kind of vegetation is also found outside the actual Mediterranean region in California in the USA, south west Africa, South America and South west Australia.
These regions are having hot dry summers and mild rainy winters.
Oranges, figs, olives and grapes are citrus fruits which are cultivated here because people have removed the natural vegetation in order to cultivate what they wish to.
Wildlife is not present here that much.

→ Coniferous Forests

The important variety of trees in these forests are Chir, pine, cedar.
Trees are tall, softwood evergreen trees.
These woods are very useful for making pulp, which is used for manufacturing paper and newsprint.
Match boxes and packing boxes are also made from softwood.

→ Grasslands
Two types of grasslands:

Tropical and
Temperate Grasslands.

→ Tropical Grasslands

These grow on either side of the equator and extend till the tropics.
This vegetation grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall.
These can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres in height.
Savannah grasslands of Africa are of this type.
In tropical grasslands, animals found are elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards.

→ Temperate Grasslands

These are found in the midlatitudinal zones and in the interior part of the continents.
Grass is short and nutritious.
In the temperate region, the animals which are found are wild buffaloes, bisons, antilopes.

→ Thorny Bushes

These are found in the dry desert such as tropical deserts which are located in the western margins of the continents.
The vegetation cover is scarce here because of scanty rain and scorching heat.

→ Tundra Vegetation

The polar region is extremely cold.
The growth of natural vegetation is very limited here.
Only mosses, lichens and very small shrubs are found here.
It grows during the very short summer. These are known as Tundra type of vegetation.
They are found in the polar areas of Europe, Asia and North America.
The animals have thick fur and skin to protect themselves from the cold climatic conditions. Some of the animals are seal, walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear and snow foxes.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 8 Devotional Paths to the Divine

November 16, 2024November 15, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 8 Devotional Paths to the Divine

→ From the eighth century, various kinds of Bhakti and Sufi movements have evolved.

→ The Idea of a Supreme God

There was a belief that social privileges came from birth in a ‘noble’ family or a ‘high’ caste was the subject of many learned texts.
Most of the people were not comfortable with such ideas and turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas.
Rest of others felt attracted to the idea of a Supreme God who could deliver humans from such bondage if approached with full devotion or bhakti. This idea was advocated in the Bhagavadgita, which grew in popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.
Hence, Shiva, Vishnu and Durga were worshipped as supreme deities which came through elaborate rituals.
The Puranas also laid down the fact that it was possible for devotees to receive the grace of God regardless of their caste status.
The idea of bhakti became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas adopted these beliefs.

→ A New Kind of Bhakti in South India – Nayanars and Alvars

From the seventh to ninth centuries, they saw the emergence of new religious movements
led by the Nayanars (those were the saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (those were the saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes including those considered as ‘untouchable’ such as the Pulaiyar and the Panars.
They strongly criticized the Buddhists and Jainas and preached avid love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation.
In the Sangam literature, the ideals of love and heroism are found. It is the earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during the early centuries of the Common Era and blended them with the values of bhakti.
In between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Chola and Pandya-kings built elaborate temples. This was also the time when their poems were compiled. Apart from this, hagiographies or religious biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were also composed.

→ Philosophy and Bhakti

In the eighth century, Shankara, one of the most influential philosophers of India, was born in Kerala and was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the Ultimate Reality. He preached renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge to understand the actual nature of Brahman and attain salvation.
In the eleventh century, Ramanuja was born in Tamil Nadu and deeply influenced by the Alvars. According to him, through intense devotion to Vishnu one can attain the salvation. He introduced the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul even when united with the Supreme God remained distinct.

→ Basavanna’s Virashaivism:

In the mid-twelfth century, the Virashaiva movement was initiated by Basavanna and his companions like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi. This movement began in Karnataka.
They were strongly supportive for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women and also against all forms of ritual and idol worship.

→ The Saints of Maharashtra

From the thirteenth to seventeenth centuries, Maharashtra saw many saint-poets. The most important amongst them were Dnyaneshwar (Gyaneshwar), Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well as women like Sakkubai and the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the ‘untouchable’ Mahar caste.
These saint-poets rejected all forms of rituals. In fact, they even rejected the idea of renunciation and preferred to live with their families and earning their livelihood like any other person.
As the famous Gujarati saint Narsi Mehta said, “They are Vaishnavas who understand the pain of others.”
Hence, a new humanist idea emerged as they insisted that bhakti lay in sharing others’ pain.
Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis
The Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis were from the religious groups that emerged
during this period and criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order. They advocated renunciation of the world. For them meditation was the path to salvation.
They advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices likeyogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation. These groups became popular among the Tow’ castes.

→ Islam and Sufism:

Sufis rejected outward religiosity and emphasized on love and devotion to God and they were Muslim mystics.
Islam generated strict monotheism or submission to one God. It also rejected idol worship.
Shariat was a holy law developed by Muslim scholars. The Sufis often rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.
The Sufis too like saint poets composed poems expressing their feelings and a rich literature in prose, including anecdotes and fables, developed around them.
The great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.
They developed a detailed method of training using zikr means chanting of a name or sacred formula, contemplation, sama means singing, raqs means dancing, discussion of parables, breath control, etc., under the guidance of a master or pir. Thus, they emerged the silsilas means a genealogy of Sufi teachers, each following a slightly different method (tariqa) of instruction and ritual practice.
The most influential orders were the Chishti silsila among them. Many teachers were there such as Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawa Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.
The assemblies of the Sufi masters held in their khanqahs or hospices.
The tomb or dargah of a Sufi saint became a place of pilgrimage to which thousands of people of all faiths thronged and worshipped.

→ New Religious Developments in North India

In north India, after the thirteenth century, there was a new swing in the bhakti movement. This was the period when Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism, various strands of bhakti, and the Nathpanths, Siddhas and Yogis influenced and transformed each other.
Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak rejected all conservative and devout religions. Others like Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make these attainable to all. Tulsidas’s composition, the Ramcharitmanas is written in Awadhi (a language used in eastern Uttar Pradesh), is important both as an expression of his devotion for Rama and as a literary work.
Surdas was an avid devotee of Krishna. The Sursagara, Surasaravali and Sahitya Lahari are his composition which express his devotion.
In late fifteenth century, Shankaradeva of Assam focused on devotion to Vishnu and composed poems and plays in Assamese. He made namghars or houses of recitation and prayer, a practice which continues till date.
There were some more important saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai.
In the sixteenth century, Mirabai who was a Rajput princess married into the royal family of Mewar. She became a disciple of Ravidas, a saint from a caste considered ‘untouchable’.
Most of the saints works were composed in regional languages and could be sung. They became immensely popular and were handed down orally from generation to generation.

→ A Closer Look: Kabir

Kabir was one of the most influential saint in the fifteenth-sixteenth century. We get to know of Kabir’s ideas from a huge collection of verses called sakhis and pads said to have been composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers. They were later collected and preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani and Bijak.
His teachings were based on the rejection of the major religious traditions. The language of his poetry was understood by ordinary people as it was a form of spoken Hindi.
He believed in a formless Supreme God and advised that the only path to salvation was through bhakti or devotion.

→ A Closer Look: Baba Guru Nanak

Guru Nanak (1469-1539) bom at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib in * Pakistan) and he travelled widely before establishing a centre at Kartarpur known as Dera Baba Nanak on the river Ravi.
Whatever the caste, creed or gender is, his followers ate together in the common kitchen known as langar. Thus, the sacred space created by Gum Nanak was known as Dharamsala. Now it is called as Gurdwara.
Gum Angad who was appointed by Gum Nanak as his successor, compiled the compositions of Gum Nanak, and he added his own composition in a new script known as Gurmukhi.
In 1605, Gum Arjan compiled all the compositions under the name of ‘Nanak’. Other people’s writings were added to the compilation such as Shaikh Farid, Sant Kabir, Bhagat Namdev and Guru Tegh Bahadur. In 1706, this compilation was authenticated and approved by his son and successor, Gum Gobind Singh. Now, its known as Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of the Sikhs.
By the starting of the seventeenth century, the town of Ramdaspur now Amritsar had developed around the central Gurdwara called Harmandar Sahib which is known as Golden Temple.
The Khalsa Panth is the community of the Sikhs which became a political entity. It was started by Gum Gobind Singh in 1699.
The ideas of Gum Nanak had a huge impact on the development of the Sikh movement from the very beginning. He emphasized the importance of the worship of one God. He used the terms nam, dan and isnan for the essence of his teaching, which actually meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct.
Now his teachings are remembered as nam- japna, kirt-karna and vand-chhakna, which also mention the importance of right belief and worship, honest living, and helping others.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 8 Confronting Marginalisation

November 16, 2024November 15, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 8 Confronting Marginalisation

→ Religious solace, armed struggle, self improvement and education, economic uplift – there appears to be no one way of doing things. Adivasis, Dalits, Muslims, women and other marginal groups argue that simply by being citizens of a democratic country, they possess equal rights that must be respected.

→ Invoking Fundamental Rights:

The marginalised have drawn on the rights in two ways: first, by insisting on their Fundamental Rights, they have forced the government to recognise the injustice done to them. Second, they have insisted that the government enforce these laws.
In some instances, the struggles of the marginalised have influenced the government to frame new laws in keeping with the spirit of the Fundamental Rights.
Article 17 of the Constitution states that untouchability has been abolished, this means that no one can henceforth prevent Dalits from educating themselves, entering temples, using public facilities, etc.
Untouchability is a punishable crime now.
Article 15 of the Constitution notes that no citizen of India shall be discriminated
against on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. This has been used by Dalits to seek equality where it has been denied to them.
Dalits can ‘invoke’ or ‘draw on’ a Fundamental Right (or Rights) in situations where they feel that they have been treated badly by some individual or community or even by the government.
By granting different forms of cultural rights, the Constitution tries to ensure cultural justice to such groups.
The Constitution does this so that the culture of these groups is not dominated nor wiped out by the culture of the majority community.

→ Laws for the Marginalised:

There are specific laws and policies for the marginalised in our country.
There are policies or schemes that emerge through other means like setting up a committee or by undertaking a survey, etc.

→ Promoting Social Justice:

As part of their effort to implement the Constitution, both state and central governments create specific schemes for implementation in tribal areas or in areas that have a high Dalit population.
One such law/policy is the reservation policy that today is both significant and highly contentious.
The laws which reserve seats in education and government employment for Dalits and Adivasis are based on an important argument.
Governments across India have their own list of Scheduled Castes (or Dalits), Scheduled Tribes and backward and most backward castes. The central government too has its list.
Students applying to educational institutions and those applying for posts in government are expected to furnish proof of their caste or tribe status, in the form of caste and tribe certificates.

→ Protecting the Rights of Dalits and Adivasis
In addition to policies our country also has specific law’s that guard against the discrimination and exploitation of marginalised communities.

→ The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989

In order to indicate to the government that untouchability was still being practised and in the most hideous manner, Dalit groups demanded new laws that would list the various sorts of violence against dalits and prescribe stringent punishment for those who indulge in them.
The Act contains a very long list of crimes some of which are too horrible even to contemplate.
The Act does not only describe terrible crimes but also lets people know what dreadful deeds human beings are capable of.
The Act distinguishes several levels of crimes. Firstly, it lists modes of humiliation that are both physically horrific and morally reprehensible and seeks to punish.
Secondly, it lists actions that dispossess Dalits and Adivasis of their meagre resources or which force them into performing slave labour.
At another level, the Act recognises that crimes against Dalit and tribal women are of a specific kind and, therefore, seeks to penalise anyone who assaults or uses force on any woman belonging to a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe with intent to dishonour her.

→ Adivasi Demands and the 1989 Act:

The 1989 Act is important for another reason – Adivasi activists refer to it to defend their right to occupy land that was traditionally theirs.
Activists have asked that those who have forcibly encroached upon tribal lands should be punished under this law.
C.K. Janu, an Adivasi activist, has also pointed out that one of the violators of Constitutional rights guaranteed to tribal people are governments in the various states of India.
She has also noted that in cases where tribals have already been evicted and cannot go back to their lands, they must be compensated.

→ Conclusion:

The existence of a right or a law or even a policy on paper does not mean that it exists in reality.
People have had to constantly work on or make efforts to translate these into principles that guide the actions of their fellow citizens or even their leaders.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 7 Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities

November 16, 2024November 15, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 7 Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities

→ Society was divided according to the rules of varna in most parts of the subcontinent. These rules were prescribed by the Brahmanas and were accepted by the rulers of large kingdoms. The difference between the rich and poor increased.

→ Beyond Big Cities: Tribal Societies

There were other kinds of societies present as well in the subcontinent who did not follow the social rules and rituals dictated by the Brahmanas. Nor they were divided into numerous unequal classes. These types of societies are called tribes.
There was a distinctive bond of kinship among the members of each tribe. The main source of livelihood was agriculture but there were hunter-gatherers or herders as well. There were some tribes who were nomadic and moved from one place to another.
Many large tribes usually lived in forests, hills, deserts and places difficult to reach. The tribes retained their freedom and preserved their separate culture in various ways.

→ Who were Tribal People?

Tribal people did not keep written records but they preserved rich customs and oral traditions. And these were passed down to each new’ generation.
Some powerful tribes controlled large territories as people were found in almost every region of the subcontinent.
The Khokhar tribe in Punjab was very influential and powerful during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became more important. Kamal Khan Gakkhar, the chief was made mansabdar by Emperor Akbar.
The Langahs and Arghuns in Multan and Sind, dominated extensive regions before they were subdued by the Mughals.
The Balochis were another large and powerful tribe in the north-west.
The shepherd tribe of Gaddis lived in the western Himalaya.
The Nagas, Ahoms and many others too dominated the north-eastern part of the subcontinent.
Chero chiefdoms had emerged by the twelfth century in Bihar and Jharkhand. Akbar’s famous general Raja Man Singh attacked and defeated the Cheros in 1591.
The Mundas and Santals were among the other important tribes that lived in Jharkhand, Bihar, Orissa (now Odisha) and Bengal.
The Kolis, Berads and numerous other tribes were found in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Karnataka.
Far away south there were large tribal populations of Koragas, Vetars, Maravars and many others.
The tribe of Bhils were spread across western and central India.
Another tribe, the Gonds were found in good numbers across the present-day states of Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.

→ How Nomads and Mobile People Lived?

Nomads who lived on milk and other pastoral products and moved over long distances with their animals are called nomadic pastoralists. They also exchanged wool, ghee, etc., with settled agriculturists for grain, cloth, utensils and other products.
The most important trader nomads were the Banjaras. Their caravan was called tanda.
To transport grain to the city markets, Sultan Alauddin Khalji used the Banjaras.

→ Changing Society: New Castes and Hierarchies

As the society grew, people with new skills were required hence, smaller castes, or jatis, emerged within varnas.
Artisans such as smiths, carpenters and masons were also recognised as separate jatis by the Brahmanas. Jatis became the basis for organising society rather than varna.
New Rajput clans, the Kshatriyas became powerful by the eleventh and twelfth centuries. They belonged to different lineages such as Hunas, Chandelas, Chalukyas and some others. Among them, some had been tribes earlier. They moderately replaced the older rulers especially in agricultural areas.
The tribal people had to follow the Rajput clans to the position of rulers as they set an example for them.

→ A Closer Look The Gonds

The Gonds practised shifting cultivation as they lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana or “country inhabited by Gonds”.
The Akbar Nama reveals the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga that had 70,000 villages.
The kingdom was divided into garbs and each was controlled by a particular Gond clan. It was further divided into units of 84 villages called chaurasi. The chaurasi was again subdivided into barhots which were made up of 12 villages each.
The Gond raja of Garha Katanga Aman Das, assumed the title of Sangram Shah. His son, Dalpat, married princess Durgawati, the daughter of Salbahan, the Chandel Rajput raja of Mahoba.
She was very capable and brave and started ruling on behalf of her five-year old son, Bir Narain. In 1565, she was defeated by the Mughal forces under Asaf Khan and preferred to die than to surrender. Her son also died fighting after sometime.

→ The Ahoms

In the thirteenth century, the Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar. They created a new system of the bhuiyans means landlords.
They used firearms in 1530s and by that the Ahoms built a large state. They could even make high quality gunpowder and cannons by the 1660s.
In 1662, the Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked the Ahom kingdom but they were defeated.
The state depended upon forced labour. Those who were forced to work for the state were called paiks.
The new methods of rice cultivation was also introduced by Ahoms.
The society was divided into clans or khels. A khel often controlled several villages.
The Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods. During the reign of Sib Singh (1714-1744), Hinduism became the predominant religion. But they did not completely give up their traditional beliefs after adopting Hinduism.
The historical works known as buranjis were written first in the Ahom language and then in Assamese. It was a very sophisticated society. Theatre was encouraged a lot.

→ Conclusion:
This period saw more interaction between varna based society and the tribal groups. Few established extensive states with well- organised systems of administration hence, became politically powerful.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 7 Understanding Marginalisation

November 16, 2024November 15, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 7 Understanding Marginalisation

→ What Does it Mean to be Socially Marginalised?

To be marginalised is to be forced to occupy the sides or fringes and thus not be at the centre of things.
In the social environment too, groups ‘ of people or communities may have the experience of being excluded. Their marginalisation can be because they speak a different language, follow different customs or belong to a different religious group from the majority community.
They may also feel marginalised because they are poor, considered to be of ‘low’ social status and viewed as being less human than others.
They experience a sense of disadvantage and powerlessness vis-a-vis more powerful and dominant sections of society who own land, are wealthy, better educated and politically powerful.
Economic, social, cultural and political factors work together to make certain groups in society feel marginalised.

→ Who are Adivasis?
Adivasis, the term literally means ‘original inhabitants’ are communities who lived and often continue to live in close association with forests.

Around 8 per cent of India’s population is Adivasi and many of India’s most important mining and industrial centres are located in Adivasi areas – Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro and Bhilai among others.
• There are over 500 different Adivasi groups in India.
Adivasis are particularly numerous in states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and in the north-eastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura.
Adivasi societies are also most distinctive because there is often very little hierarchy among them.
Adivasis practise a range of tribal religions that are different from Islam, Hinduism and Christianity.
It often involves the worship of ancestors, village and nature spirits, the last associated with and residing in various sites in the landscape – ‘mountain-spirits’, ‘river- spirits’, ‘animal-spirits’, etc.
Adivasis have always been influenced by different surrounding religions like Shakta, Buddhist, Vaishnav, Bhakti and Christianity.
Adivasis have their own languages (most of them radically different from and possibly as old as Sanskrit), which have often deeply influenced the formation of ‘mainstream’ Indian languages, like Bengali.
Santhali has the largest number of speakers and has a significant body of publications including magazines on the internet or in e-zines.

→ Adivasis and Stereotyping:

Often Adivasis are blamed for their lack of advancement as they are believed to be resistant to change or new ideas.
Adivasis are invariably portrayed in very stereotypical ways – in colourful costumes, headgear and through their dancing.
This often wrongly leads to people believing that they are exotic, primitive and backward.

→ Adivasis and Development:

Metal ores like iron and copper, and gold and silver, coal and diamonds, invaluable timber, most medicinal herbs and animal products (wax, lac, honey) and animals themselves (elephants, the mainstay of imperial armies), all came from the forests.
Forests covered the major part of our country till the nineteenth century and the Adivasis had a deep knowledge of, access to, as well as control over most of these vast tracts at least till the middle of the nineteenth century.
Often empires heavily depended on Adivasis for the crucial access to forest resources.
In the north-east, their lands remain highly militarised.
India has 104 national parks covering 40,501 sq km and 543 wildlife sanctuaries covering 1,18,918 sq km. These are areas where tribals originally lived but were evicted from.
When they continue to stay in these forests, they are termed encroachers.
Having gradually lost access to their traditional homelands, many Adivasis have migrated to cities in search of work where they are employed for very low wages in local industries or at building or construction sites.
45 per cent of tribal groups in rural areas and 35 per cent in urban areas live below the poverty line.
Many tribal children are malnourished. Literacy rates among tribals are also very low.
Destruction in one sphere naturally impacts the other. Often this process of dispossession and displacement can be painful and violent.

→ Minorities and Marginalisation

The term minority is most commonly used to refer to communities that are numerically small in relation to the rest of the population.
It encompasses issues of power, access to resources and has social and cultural dimensions.
Safeguards are needed to protect minority communities against the possibility of being culturally dominated by the majority. They also protect them against any discrimination and disadvantage that they may face.
The Constitution provides these safeguards because it is committed to protecting India’s
cultural diversity and promoting equality as well as justice.

→ Muslims and Marginalisation

Recognising that Muslims in India were lagging behind in terms of various development indicators, the government set up a high-level committee in 2005.
Chaired by Justice Rajindar Sachar, the committee examined the social, economic and educational status of the Muslim community in India. The report discusses in detail the marginalisation of this community.
The social marginalisation of Muslims in some instances have led to them migrating from places where they have lived, often leading to the ghettoisation of the community. Sometimes, this prejudice leads to hatred and violence.
The experiences of all the groups point to the fact that marginalisation is a complex phenomenon requiring a variety of strategies, measures and safeguards to redress this situation.

→ Conclusion:

Marginalisation is linked to experiencing disadvantage, prejudice and powerlessness.
Marginalisation results in having a low social status and not having equal access to education and other resources.
Marginalised communities want to maintain their cultural distinctiveness while having access to rights, development and other opportunities.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 4 Understanding Laws

November 15, 2024November 14, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 4 Understanding Laws

→ Do Laws Apply to All?

Members instituted several provisions in the Constitution that would establish the rule of law.
The most important of these was that all persons in independent India are equal before the law.
The law cannot discriminate between persons on the basis of their religion, caste or gender.
What the rule of law means is that all laws apply equally to all citizens of the country and no one can be above the law7.
Any crime or violation of law has a specific punishment as well as a process through which the guilt of the person has to be established.
In ancient India, there were innumerable and often overlapping local laws.
Different communities enjoyed different degrees of autonomy in administering these laws among their own.
The British colonialists introduced the rule of law in India.

→ Historians have disputed this claim on several grounds, two of which include:

first that colonial law was arbitrary, and
second that the Indian nationalists played a prominent role in the development of the legal sphere in British India.

→ The Sedition Act of 1870 – The idea of sedition was very broadly understood within this Act. Any person protesting or criticising the British government could be arrested without due trial.

Indian nationalists also began fighting for greater equality and wanted to change the idea of law from a set of rules that they were forced to obey, to law as including ideas of justice.
By the end of the nineteenth century, the Indian legal profession also began emerging and demanded respect in colonial courts.
There w7ere several ways in which Indians played a major role in the evolution of the rule of law during the colonial period.
Every year our representatives pass several new laws as well as amend existing ones.

→ How Do New Laws Come About?

The Parliament has an important role in making laws.
An important role of Parliament is to be sensitive to the problems faced by people.
The role of citizens is crucial in helping Parliament frame different concerns that people might have into laws.
The voice of citizen can be heard through TV reports, newspaper editorials, radio broadcasts, local meetings, all of which help in making the work that Parliament does more accessible and transparent to the people.

→ Unpopular and Controversial Laws:

Sometimes a law can be constitutionally valid and hence legal, but it can continue to be unpopular and unacceptable to people because they feel that the intention behind it is unfair and harmful.
In a democracy like ours, citizens can express their unwillingness to accept repressive laws framed by the Parliament.
When a large number of people begin to feel that a wrong law has been passed, then there is pressure on the Parliament to change this.
If the law favours one group and disregards the other it will be controversial and lead to conflict.
People who think that the law is not fair can approach the court to decide on the issue.
The court has the power to modify or cancel laws if it finds that they don’t adhere to the Constitution.
We should bear in mind that it is the extent, involvement and enthusiasm of the people that helps Parliament perform its representative functions properly.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 5 Judiciary

November 15, 2024November 14, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 5 Judiciary

→ As an organ of government, the judiciary plays a crucial role in the functioning of India’s democracy. It can play this role only because it is independent.

→ What is the Role of the Judiciary?

Courts take decisions on a very large number of issues.
The work that the judiciary does can be divided into the following:
Dispute Resolution: The judicial system provides a mechanism for resolving disputes between citizens, etc.
Judicial Review: As the final interpreter of the Constitution, the judiciary also has the power to strike down particular laws passed by the Parliament if it believes that these are a violation of the basic structure of the Constitution. This is called judicial review.
Upholding the Law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights: Every citizen of India can approach the Supreme Court or the High Court if they believe that their Fundamental Rights have been violated.

→ What is an Independent Judiciary?

Rich and powerful people in India sometimes try to influence the judicial
process, the Indian Constitution protects against this kind of situation by providing for the independence of the judiciary.
One aspect of this independence is the ‘separation of powers’.
The other branches of government, the legislature and the executive cannot interfere in the work of the judiciaiy. The courts are not under the government and do not act on their behalf.
It is the independence of the judiciary that allows the courts to play a central role in ensuring that there is no misuse of power by the legislature and the executive.
It also plays a crucial role in protecting the Fundamental Rights of citizens because anyone can approach the courts if they believe that their rights have been violated.

→ What is the structure of Court in India?

There are three different levels of courts in our country.
The courts that most people interact with are called subordinate or district courts. These are usually at the district or Tehsil level or in towns and they hear many kinds of cases.
Each state is divided into districts that are presided over by a District Judge.
Each state has a High Court which is the highest court of that state.
At the top is the Supreme Court which is located in New Delhi and is presided over by the Chief Justice of India.
In India, we have an integrated judicial system, meaning that the decisions made by higher courts are binding on the lower courts.
A person can appeal to a higher court if they believe that the judgment passed by the lower court is not just.

→ What are the Different Branches of the Legal System?
In addition to criminal law, the legal system also deals with civil law cases.

→ Does Everyone Have Access to the Courts?

In principle, all citizens of India can access the courts in this country. This implies that every citizen has a right to justice through the courts.
While the courts are available for all, in reality access to courts has always been difficult for a vast majority of the poor in India.
Legal procedures involve a lot of money and paper work as well as take up a lot of time.
The Supreme Court in the early 1980s devised a mechanism of Public Interest Litigation or PIL to increase access to justice.
The legal process was greatly simplified and even a letter or telegram addressed to the Supreme Court or the High Court could be treated as a PIL.
For the common person, access to courts is access to justice.
The courts exercise a crucial role in interpreting the Fundamental Rights of citizens and the courts interpreted Article 21 of the Constitution on the Right to Life to include the Right to Food.
There are also court judgments that people believe work against the best interests of the common person.
Another issue that affects the common person’s access to justice is the inordinately long number of years that courts take to hear a case.
The members of the Constituent Assembly had quite correctly envisioned a system of courts with an independent judiciary as a key feature of our democracy.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Understanding Our Criminal Justice System

November 15, 2024November 14, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Understanding Our Criminal Justice System

→ After a person is arrested, it is a court of law that decides whether the accused person is guilty or not.

According to the Constitution, every individual charged of a crime has to be given a fair trial.
According to Article 22 of the Constitution, ‘ every person has a Fundamental Right to be
defended by a lawyer.
Article 39A of the Constitution places a duty upon the State to provide a lawyer to any citizen who is unable to engage one due to poverty or other disability.

→ What is the Role of the Police in Investigating a Crime?

One important function of the police is to investigate any complaint about the commission of a crime.
An investigation includes recording statements of witnesses and collecting different kinds of evidence.
Police investigations always have to be conducted in accordance with law and with full respect for human rights.

→ Article 22 of the Constitution and criminal law guarantee to every arrested person the following Fundamental Rights:

The Right to be informed at the time of arrest of the offence for which the person is being arrested.
The Right to be presented before a magistrate within 24 hours of arrest.
The Right not to be ill-treated or tortured during arrest or in custody.
Confessions made in police custody cannot be used as evidence against the accused.
A boy under 15 years of age and women cannot be called to the police station only for questioning.

→ What is the Role of the Public Prosecutor?

A criminal offence is regarded as a public wrong.
What is meant by this is that it is considered to have been committed not only against the affected victims but against society as a whole.
In court, it is the Public Prosecutor who represents the interests of the State.
As an officer of the court, it is his/ her duty to act impartially and present the full and material facts, witnesses and evidence before the court to enable the court to decide the case.

→ What is the Role of the Judge?

The judge decides whether the accused person is guilty or innocent on the basis of the evidence presented and in accordance with the law.
If the accused is convicted, then the judge pronounces the sentence.

→ What is a Fair Trial?

A fair trial ensures that Article 21 of the Constitution is upheld.
For a trial to be fair, several different procedures have to be observed. Article 21 of the Constitution that guarantees the Right to Life states that a person’s life or liberty can be taken away only by following a reasonable and just legal procedure.
It is significant that the judge decided the matter only on the basis of the evidence before the court.
All need to work to ensure that every citizen, irrespective of their class, caste, gender, religious and ideological backgrounds get a fair trial when accused.
The rule of law which says that everyone is equal before the law would not make much sense if every citizen were not guaranteed a fair trial by the Constitution.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 9 Maths Notes Chapter 1 संख्या पद्धति

November 14, 2024November 13, 2024 by Bhagya

Students should go through these JAC Class 9 Maths Notes Chapter 1 संख्या पद्धति will seemingly help to get a clear insight into all the important concepts.

JAC Board Class 9 Maths Notes Chapter 1 संख्या पद्धति

प्राकृत संख्याएँ वस्तुओं की गिनती करने के लिए हम 1, 2, 3, 4,… आदि संख्याओं का प्रयोग करते हैं। इन संख्याओं को प्राकृत संख्याएँ कहते हैं। इनकी संख्या अनन्त होती है। प्राकृत संख्याओं के समूह को N द्वारा व्यक्त करते हैं।
जैसे N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…..}

पूर्ण संख्याएं: यदि प्राकृत संख्याओं में 0 (शून्य) को सम्मिलित कर लिया जाए, तो प्राप्त संख्याओं के समूह को पूर्ण संख्याएँ कहा जाता है। इस समूह को W से व्यक्त किया जाता है।
जैसे W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4….}

प्राकृत संख्याओं और पूर्ण संख्याओं के समुच्चय में अन्तर :
प्राकृत संख्याओं का समुच्चय N = {1, 2, 3…} है और पूर्ण संख्याओं का समुच्चय W = {0, 1, 2, 3….} है।
प्राकृत और पूर्ण संख्याओं के समुच्चय की तुलना करने पर, हम देखते हैं कि

समस्त प्राकृत संख्याएँ पूर्ण संख्याएँ हैं।
0 के अतिरिक्त समस्त पूर्ण संख्याएँ प्राकृत संख्याएँ हैं।
1 सबसे छोटी प्राकृत संख्या है जबकि 0 सबसे छोटी पूर्ण संख्या है।
प्राकृत तथा पूर्ण संख्याएँ अनन्त होती हैं।

पूर्णांक संख्याएँ : यदि प्राकृत संख्याओं में ऋण संख्याओं को भी सम्मिलित कर लिया जाए तो प्राप्त संख्याओं के संग्रह को पूर्णांक संख्याएँ कहा जाता है, और इन्हें Z or I प्रतीक से व्यक्त किया जाता हैं। ये दो प्रकार की होती हैं:
(i) धन पूर्णांक,
(ii) ऋण पूर्णांक
JAC Class 9 Maths Notes Chapter 1 संख्या पद्धति 1
(i) संख्या रेखा पर शून्य के दार्यों और के पूर्णांक, धन पूर्णांक तथा शून्य के बायीं ओर के पूर्णांक, ऋण पूर्णांक कहलाते हैं।
(ii) शून्य, प्रत्येक धन पूर्णांक से छोटा तथा सभी ऋण पूर्णांकों से बड़ा होता है।

परिमेय संख्याएँ : ऐसी संख्याएँ जो \(\frac{p}{q}\) के रूप में व्यक्त की जा सकती हों तथा जहाँ p और पूर्णांक हों, परन्तु q ≠ 0, परिमेय संख्याएँ कहलाती हैं।
जैसे : \(\frac{1}{2}, \frac{2}{3}, \frac{-4}{5}, \frac{7}{3}, \frac{-6}{7}, \ldots\) इत्यादि।

प्रत्येक प्राकृत संख्या परिमेय संख्या है।
0 एक परिमेय संख्या है।
प्रत्येक पूर्णांक परिमेय संख्या है।
प्रत्येक भिन्न परिमेय संख्या है।
प्रत्येक परिमेय संख्या का दशमलव भिन्न के रूप में प्रसार किया जा सकता है।

परिमेय संख्याओं का दशमलव प्रसार दो प्रकार का होता है:
(i) सांत,
(ii) असांत (अनवसानी आवर्ती)।

सांत दशमलव प्रसार : परिमेय संख्याएँ, जो कि सदा \(\frac{p}{q}\) के रूप में होती है, p में q का भाग देने पर अन्त में शेषफल शुन्य प्राप्त होता है, तो वे दशमलव संख्याएँ सांत दशमलव प्रसार वाली परिमेय संख्याएँ कहलाती हैं।
जैसे : \(\frac{1}{2}\) = 0.5, \(\frac{3}{2}\) = 1.5, \(\frac{1}{8}\) = 0.125 आदि।

असांत दशमलव प्रसार : परिमेय संख्या को दशमलव संख्या में बदलते समय भाग की क्रिया निरन्तर चलती रहती है और शेषफल की निरंतरता बनी रहती है अर्थात् भागफल में अंकों की पुनरावृत्ति होती रहती है इस प्रकार की दशमलव संख्याओं को असांत आवर्ती दशमलव संख्या कहते हैं असांत दशमलव संख्या को संक्षिप्त रूप में लिखने के लिए पुनरावृत्ति वाले अंकों के ऊपर (-) रेखा खींचते हैं।
जैसे : \(\frac{3}{11}\) = 0.272727…….. = \(0 . \overline{27}\)
\(\frac{1}{3}\) = 0.333……. = \(0 . \overline{3}\) इत्यादि।
इन्हें असांत आवर्ती (Non-terminating Repeating) परिमेय संख्याएँ भी कहते हैं।

परिमेय संख्याओं के महत्त्वपूर्ण बिन्दु :

प्राकृत संख्याएँ, पूर्ण संख्याएँ, पूर्णांक व भिन्नें सभी परिमेय संख्याएँ होती हैं।
भिन्न के अंश और हर प्राकृत संख्याएँ होती हैं, जबकि परिमेय संख्या के अंश और हर पूर्णांक होते हैं। परन्तु परिमेय संख्या का हर शून्य नहीं होता।
संख्या रेखा पर परिमेय संख्याएँ प्रदर्शित की जा सकती हैं।
किसी परिमेय संख्या के अंश और हर को समान अशून्य पूर्णांक से गुणा करने अथवा भाग देने पर समतुल्य परिमेय संख्याएँ प्राप्त होती हैं।
दो परिमेय संख्याओं के बीच में अनन्त परिमेय संख्याएँ निहित होती हैं।
प्रत्येक परिमेय संख्या को सांत अथवा असांत आवर्ती दशमलव संख्या के रूप में लिखा जा सकता है।
सांत परिमेय संख्या का हर सदैव 2^m × 5ⁿ के रूप में होता है।
यदि परिमेय संख्या का हर 2^m × 5ⁿ के रूप में नहीं है तो वह असांत आवृत्ति होती है।
यदि परिमेय संख्या के अंश तथा हर में एक के अतिरिक्त अन्य कोई उभयनिष्ठ गुणनखण्ड नहीं है तो वह परिमेय संख्या का मानक रूप (Standard form) कहलाता है।
परिमेय संख्या ऋणात्मक हो सकती है किन्तु उसका हर सदैव धनात्मक ही लिया जाता है।

JAC Class 9 Maths Notes Chapter 4 Linear Equations in Two Variables

November 14, 2024November 13, 2024 by Bhagya

Students should go through these JAC Class 9 Maths Notes Chapter 4 Linear Equations in Two Variables will seemingly help to get a clear insight into all the important concepts.

JAC Board Class 9 Maths Notes Chapter 4 Linear Equations in Two Variables

Linear Equation In One Variable:
An equation of the form ax + b = 0, where a and bare real numbers with a = 0 and ‘x’ is a variable, is called a linear equation in one variable.
Here ‘a’ is called coefficient of x and ‘b’ is called a constant term. i.e. 3x + 5 = 0, 7x – 2 = 0 etc.

Linear Equation In Two Variables:
An equation of the form ax + by + c = 0 where a, b, c are real numbers and a and b both are not to be zero, and x, y are variables, is called a linear equation in two variables, here ‘a’ is called coefficient of x, ‘b’ is called coefficient of y and ‘c’ is called constant term.
Any pair of values of x and y which satisfies the equation ax + by + c = 0, is called a solution of it.

Graph Of A Linear Equation:
→ In order to draw the graph of a linear equation in one variable we may follow the following algorithm.
Step I: Obtain the linear equation.
Step II: If the equation is of the form ax = b, a ≠ 0, then plot the point \(\left(\frac{\mathrm{b}}{\mathrm{a}}, 0\right)\) and one more point \(\left(\frac{b}{a}, \alpha\right)\) where α is any real number. If the equation is of the form ay = b, a ≠ 0, then plot the point \(\left(0, \frac{b}{a}\right)\) and \(\left(\beta, \frac{b}{a}\right)\) where β is any real number.
Step III: Join the points plotted in step II to obtain the required line. Note: If equation is in the form ax = b then we get a line parallel to y-axis and if equation is in form ay = b then we get a line parallel to x-axis.
JAC Class 9 Maths Notes Chapter 4 Linear Equations in Two Variables 1

→ In order to draw the graph of a linear equation ax + by + c = 0, we may follow the following algorithm.
Step I: Obtain the linear equation ax + by + c = 0.
Step II: Express y in terms of x i.e. y = \(-\frac{a}{b} x-\frac{c}{b}\) or x in terms of y i.e. x = \(-\frac{b}{a} y-\frac{c}{a}\).
Step III: Put any two or three values for x or y and calculate the corresponding values of y or x respectively from the expression obtained in Step II. Let us suppose that we get the points as (α₁, β₁),(α₂, β₂), (α₃, β₃).
Step IV: Plot the points (α₁, β₁), (α₂, β₂), (α₃, β₃) on graph paper.
Step V: Join the points marked in step IV. The line obtained is the graph of the equation ax + by + c = 0.

Different Forms Of A Line:
→ Slope of a Line: If a line makes an angle θ with positive direction of x-axis, then tangent of this angle is called the slope of a line, it is denoted by m i.e. m = tan θ.
→ Slope-intercept form is y = mx + c where m is the slope of line and c is intercept made by line with y-axis.
→ The equation of a line passing through origin is y = mx. When c = 0, the line always passes through origin.
JAC Class 9 Maths Notes Chapter 4 Linear Equations in Two Variables 2
→ Intercept form of line is \(\frac{x}{a}+\frac{y}{b}=1\), where a and b are the intercepts on positive direction of x-axis and y-axis respectively made by the line.

Solution Of Linear Equation In One Variable:
Let ax + b = 0 be the equation then ax = – b
⇒ x= \(-\frac{b}{a}\) is a solution.