Caste and Reform – Page 2 – Jharkhand Board Solution

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Human Resource

June 10, 2026June 9, 2026 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Human Resource

→ Human resource is the ultimate resource. Healthy, educated and motivated people develop resources as per their requirements.

→ Distribution of Population:

The pattern of population distribution is the way in which people are spread across the earth surface.
The distribution of population in the world is extremely uneven.
Almost three-quarters of the world’s people live in two continents Asia and Africa.
In just 10 countries, sixty per cent of the world’s people stay. All of them have more than a 100 million people.

→ Density of Population:
The number of people living in a unit area of the earth’s surface is called population density. It is normally expressed as per square km.

→ Factors Affecting Distribution of Population Geographical factors:

Topography: People always prefer to live on plains rather than mountains and plateaus because these areas are suitable for farming, manufacturing and service activities.
Climate: People usually avoid extreme climates that are very hot or very cold such as Sahara desert, polar regions of Russia, Canada and Antarctica.
Soil: Fertile soils provide suitable land for agriculture. Fertile plains are densely populated.
Water: The river valleys of the world are densely populated while deserts have spare population.
Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits are more populated.
Social Cultural and Economic Factors
Social: Areas of better housing, education and health facilities are more densely populated.
Cultural: Places with religion or cultural significance attract people.
Economic: Industrial areas provide employment opportunities.

→ Population Change:

Population change refers to change in the number of people during a specific time.
The world population has not been stable. This is actually due to changes in the number of births and deaths.
The main reason for the growth of population was that with better food supplies and medicine, deaths were reducing, while the number of births still remained fairly high.
Births are usually measured using the birth rate, i.e., the number of live births per 1,000 people.
Deaths are usually measured using the death rate, i.e., the number of deaths per 1,000 people.
Migrations is the movement of people in and out of an area.
The difference between the birth rate and the death rate of a country is called the natural growth rate. It is one of the reasons for population increase.
Migration is another way by which population size changes.
The general trend of international migrations is from the less developed nations to the more developed nations in search of better employment opportunities.

→ Patterns of Population Change:
Rates of population growth vary across the world. Although, the world’s total population is rising rapidly, not all countries are experiencing this growth.

→ Population Composition:

Population composition refers to the structure of the population.
The composition of population helps us to know how many are males or females, which age group they belong to, how educated they are and what type of occupations they are employed in, what their income levels and health conditions are and many more things.
The shape of the population pyramid tells the story of the people living in that particular country.
The population pyramid also tells us how many dependents there are in a country.
Skilled, spirited and hopeful young people endowed with a positive outlook are the future of any nation.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Industries

June 10, 2026June 9, 2026 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Industries

→ Secondary activities or manufacturing change raw materials into products of more value to people. Industry is an economic activity that is concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals or the provision of services.

→ Classification of Industries:
On the basis of raw materials, size and ownership, industries are classified.

→ Raw Materials:

Depending upon the type of raw materials used, they are classified accordingly. Industries may be agro-based, mineral based, marine based and forest based.
Plant and animal based products are used as their raw materials in Agro-based industries.
The primary industries that use mineral ores as their raw materials in Mineral based industries.
Marine based industries use products from the sea and oceans as raw materials.
Forest based industries utilise forest produce as raw materials.

→ Size:

Size depicts the amount of capital invested, number of people employed and the volume of production.
Industries can be classified into small scale and large scale industries based on its size.
In a small scale industry, the products are manufactured by hand, by the artisans.
In large scale industries, investment of capital is higher and the technology used is superior.

→ Ownership:

Industries can be classified into private sector, public sector or state owned, joint sector and cooperative sector.
Private-sector industries are owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals.
The public sector industries are owned and operated by the government.
Joint sector industries are owned and operated by the state and individuals or a group of individuals.
Co-operative sector industries are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers or both.

→ Factors Affecting Location of Industries:

The factors affecting the location of industries are the availability of raw material, land, water, labour, power, capital, transport and market.
Industrialisation often leads to development and growth of towns and cities.

→ Industrial System:

An industrial system consists of inputs, processes and outputs.
The inputs are the raw materials, labour and costs of land, transport, power and other infrastructure.
The processes include a wide range of activities that convert the raw material into finished products.
The outputs are the end product and the income earned from it.

→ Industrial Regions:

Industrial regions emerge when a number of industries locate close to each other and share the benefits of their closeness.
Major industrial regions of the world are eastern North America, western and central Europe, eastern Europe and eastern Asia.
India has several industrial regions such as Mumbai-Pune cluster, Bangalore-Tamil Nadu region, Hugh region, Ahmedabad- Baroda region, Chhota Nagpur industrial belt, Vishakhapatnam-Guntur belt, Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut region and the Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram industrial cluster.

→ Distribution of Major Industries:

The world’s major industries are the iron and steel industry, the textile industry and the information technology industry.
The countries in which iron and steel industry is located are Germany, USA, China, Japan and Russia.
Textile industry is mainly concentrated in India, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan.
The major hubs of information technology industry is the Silicon Valley of Central California and the Bangalore region of India.

→ Iron and Steel Industry:

Iron and steel industry is a feeder industry whose products are used as raw material for other industries.
Steel is tough and it can easily be shaped, cut, or made into wire.
Alloys give steel unusual hardness, toughness, or ability to resist rust.
Steel is often called the backbone of modem industry.
Most of the things we use is either made of iron or steel or has been made with tools and machinery of these metals.
Before 1800 A.D. iron and steel industry was located where raw materials, power supply and running water were easily available. Later the ideal location for the industry was near coal fields and close to canals and railways. After 1950, iron and steel industry began to be located on large areas of flat land near sea ports.
In India, iron and steel industry has developed taking advantage of raw materials, cheap labour, transport and market.
All the important steel producing centres such as Bhilai, Durgapur, Bumpur, Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro are situated in West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh. Bhadravati and Vijay Nagar in Karnataka, Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, Salem in Tamil Nadu.

→ Jamshedpur:

Before 1947, there was only one iron and steel plant in the country – Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) and it was privately owned.
After independence, the government took the initiative and set up several iron and steel plants.
Jamshedpur is the most conveniently situated iron and steel centre in the country.
In Jamshedpur, several other industrial plants were set up after TISCO. They produce chemicals, locomotive parts, agricultural equipment, machinery, tinplate, cable and wire.
Almost all sectors of the Indian industry depend heavily on the iron and steel industry for their basic infrastructure. It opened the doors to rapid industrial development in India.

→ Pittsburgh:

It is an important steel city of the United States of America. The steel industry at Pittsburgh enjoys locational advantages.
The Pittsburgh area has many factories other than steel mills. These use steel as their raw material to make many different products such as railroad equipment, heavy machinery and rails.
Today, very few of the large steel mills are in Pittsburgh itself.

→ Cotton Textile Industry:

Cotton, wool, silk, jute, flax have been used for making cloth and weaving cloth from yam is an ancient art.
Fibres are the raw material of textile industry. Fibres can be natural or man-made.
Natural fibres are obtained from wool, silk, cotton, linen and jute. Man-made fibres include nylon, polyester, acrylic and rayon.
The cotton textile industry is one of the oldest industries in the world.
In 18th century power looms facilitated the development of cotton textile industry, first in Britain and later in other parts of the world.
The important producers of cotton textiles are India, China, Japan and the USA.
Before the British rule, Indian hand-spun and handwoven cloth already had a wide market.
The Muslins of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam, Calicos of Calicut and Gold-wrought cotton of
Burhanpur, Surat and Vadodara were known worldwide for their quality and design.
The production of handwoven cotton textile was expensive and time consuming.
The first successful mechanised textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854.
Initially this industry flourished in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat because of favourable humid climate.
Nowadays, it can be created artificially, and some of the other important centres are Coimbatore, Kanpur, Chennai, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Kolkata, Ludhiana, Puducherry and Panipat.

→ Ahmedabad:

The first mill was established in 1859.
It soon became the second largest textile city of India, after Mumbai.
Ahmedabad was often referred to as the ‘Manchester of India’.
Ahmedabad is situated very close to cotton growing area.
The densely populated states of Gujarat and Maharashtra provide both skilled and semi-skilled labour.
In the recent years, Ahmedabad textile mills have been having facing some problems. This is due to the emergence of new textile centres in the country as well as non- upgradation of machines and technology in the mills of Ahmedabad.

→ Osaka:

It is an important textile centre of Japan and also known as the ‘Manchester of Japan’.
The textile industry at Osaka depends completely upon imported raw materials.
Cotton is imported from Egypt, India, China and USA.
The finished product is mostly exported and has a good market due to good quality and low price.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Mineral and Power Resources

November 16, 2024November 15, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Mineral and Power Resources

→ A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that has a definite chemical composition.

Minerals are not evenly distributed over the areas. They are concentrated in a particular area or rock formations.
Some minerals are found in regions which are not easily accessible such as the Arctic ocean bed and Antarctica.
Minerals are created by natural processes without any human interference. On the basis of their physical properties such as colour, density, hardness and chemical property such as solubility, they are classified and identified.

→ Types of Minerals:

On earth, there are over three thousand different minerals.
On the basis of composition, minerals are categorised as:
- Metallic minerals
- non-metallic minerals.
Metals in raw form are present in metallic minerals.
The hard substances that conduct heat and electricity and have a characteristic lustre or shine are known as metals. Iron ore, bauxite, manganese ore are some examples.

→ Metallic minerals are of two types:

Ferrous minerals are such as iron ore, manganese and chromites contain iron.
A non-ferrous mineral does not contain iron but may contain some other metal such as gold, silver, copper or lead.

→ Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals.

Limestone, mica and gypsum are non- metallic minerals.
The mineral fuels like coal and petroleum are also non-metallic minerals.
Minerals can be extracted by mining, drilling or quarrying.
Mining is the process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s surface.

→ Mining is categorised into two:

Open cast mining
Shaft mining

→ In open-cast mining, minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface layer.

In shaft mining, deep bores known as shafts, have to be made to reach mineral deposits that lie at great depths.
Petroleum and natural gas occur deep below the earth’s surface. Drilling is done to take them out and deep wells are bored.
Quarrying is the method in which minerals that lie near the surface are simply dug out.

→ Distribution of Minerals:

Metallic minerals are found in igneous and metamorphic rock formations that form large plateaus.
Iron-ore in north Sweden, copper and nickel deposits in Ontario, Canada, iron, nickel, chromites and platinum in South Africa are some of the examples of minerals found in these rocks.
Non-metallic minerals are found in sedimentary rock formations of plains and young fold mountains contain such as limestone.
Limestone deposits of Caucasus region of France, manganese deposits of Georgia and Ukraine and phosphate beds of Algeria are some examples. Coal and petroleum, the mineral fuels are also found in the sedimentary strata.

→ Asia:

China and India have large iron ore deposits. The continent produces more than half of the world’s tin.
The world’s leading tin producers are China, Malaysia and Indonesia.
China is in the leading position in production of lead, antimony and tungsten.
Asia also has deposits of manganese, bauxite, nickel, zinc and copper.

→ Europe:

Europe is the leading producer of iron-ore in the world.
Russia, Ukraine, Sweden and France have the large deposits of iron ore.
In eastern Europe and European Russia, minerals found are copper, lead, zinc, manganese and nickel.

→ North America:

The mineral deposits are situated in three zones:
- the Canadian region north of the Great Lakes,
- the Appalachian region and
- the mountain ranges of the west.
In the Canadian Shield Region, iron ore, nickel, gold, uranium and copper are found.
In the Appalachians region, coal is found.
In Western Cordilleras, vast deposits of copper, lead, zinc, gold and silver are found.

→ South America:

The largest producer of high grade iron-ore in the world is Brazil.
The leading producers of copper are Chile and Peru.
Among the world’s largest producers of tin are Brazil and Bolivia.
In Venezuela, Argentina, Chile, Peru and Columbia, mineral oil is found.

→ Africa:

The world’s largest producer of diamonds, gold and platinum is Africa.
A major portion of the world’s gold is produced by South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zaire.
Copper, iron ore, chromium, uranium, cobalt and bauxite are found here.
In Nigeria, Libya and Angola, oil is found.

→ Australia:

The largest producer of bauxite in the world is Australia.
The largest deposits of gold is found in Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie areas of western Australia.
It is a leading producer of gold, diamond, iron ore, tin and nickel.

→ Antarctica:

Iron ore, gold, silver and oil are present in commercial quantities.
Sufficient and significant amount of deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains and iron near the Prince Charles Mountains of East Antarctica is predicted.

→ Uses of Minerals:

Minerals are used in many industries in different forms.
Minerals which are used for gems and jewellery are usually hard. These are later processed.
Copper is used in almost everything from coins to pipes.
Silicon is used in the computer industry and is obtained from quartz.
Aluminum obtained from its ore.
In automobiles, airplanes, bottling industry, buildings and even in kitchen cookware, bauxite is used.

→ Conservation of Minerals:

Minerals are a non-renewable resource.
In the process of mining, it is necessary to reduce the wastage.
Another way in which the mineral resources can be conserved is recycling of metals.

→ Power Resources:

We need power or energy for industry, agriculture, transport, communication and defense.
Power resources may be broadly categorised as:
- conventional resources
- non-conventional resources.

→ Conventional Sources:

Those energy which have been in common use for a long time are known as the conventional energy.
The two main conventional energy sources are:
- Firewood
- Fossil fuels

→ Firewood:

More than fifty per cent of the energy used by villagers comes from firewood in our country.
It is mainly used for cooking and heating.

→ Fossil Fuel:

Fossil fuels are the fuel which are formed by the natural processes.
For millions of years, remains of plants and animals which were buried under the earth got converted by the heat and pressure into fossil fuels.
Fossil fuel such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are the main sources of conventional energy.

→ Coal:

Electricity from coal is known as thermal power.
Coal is also known as Buried Sunshine because the coal which we are using today was formed millions of years ago when giant ferns and swamps got buried under the layers of earth.
In India, the coal producing areas are Raniganj, Jharia, Dhanbad and Bokaro in Jharkhand.
The leading coal producers of the world are China, USA, Germany, Russia, South Africa and France.

→ Petroleum:

A thick black liquid is known as Petroleum. Since they are very valuable, petroleum and its derivatives are called Black Gold.
Petroleum is found between the layers of rocks and is drilled from oil fields which is located in off-shore and coastal areas. Then sent to refineries which process the crude oil and produce a variety of products such as diesel, petrol, kerosene, wax, plastics and lubricants.
The chief petroleum producing countries are Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Qatar.
The leading producers in India are Digboi in Assam, Bombay High in Mumbai and the deltas of Krishna and Godavari rivers.

→ Natural Gas:

Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is brought to the surface. Very few countries in the world have sufficient amount of natural gas reserves of their own.
Russia, Norway, UK and the Netherlands are the major producers of natural gas. In India, Jaisalmer, Krishna Godavari delta, Tripura and some areas off shore in Mumbai have natural gas resources.
The consumption of fossil fuels has increased which led to their depletion at an alarming rate. The toxic and poisonous pollutants released from burning these fuels are major cause for concern.

→ Hydel Power:

Rainwater or river water stored in dams produce electricity by a specific method. This electricity is known as Hydro electricity.
The water discharged after the generation of electricity is used for irrigation. The world’s electricity is produced by hydel power is one fourth.
Paraguay, Norway, Brazil, and China are the leading producers of hydroelectricity.
In India, some important hydel power stations are Bhakra Nangal, Gandhi Sagar, Nagarjun Sagar and Damodar valley projects.

→ Non-Conventional Sources of Energy:
There is need for using non-conventional sources such as solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy which are renewable because the increasing use of fossil fuels is leading to its shortage.

→ Solar Energy:

Solar energy trapped from the sun can be used in solar cells to produce electricity. Many of these cells are joined into solar panels to generate power for heating and lighting purpose.
Solar energy is also used in solar heaters, solar cookers, solar dryers and traffic signals.

→ Wind Energy:

Wind mills have been used for grinding grain and lifting water since ancient times. In modem time, the wind mills with high speed winds rotate the wind mill which is connected to a generator to produce electricity.
Windfarms are found in Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, UK, USA and Spain which are known for their wind energy production.

→ Nuclear Power:

Nuclear power is obtained from energy stored in the nuclei of atoms of naturally occurring radioactive elements such as uranium and thorium.
Rajasthan and Jharkhand have large deposits of Uranium. Thorium is found in large quantities in the Monozite sands of Kerala.
In India, the nuclear power stations are situated in Kalpakkam in Tamilnadu, Tarapur in Maharashtra, Ranapratap Sagar near Kota in Rajasthan, Narora in Uttar Pradesh and Kaiga in Karnataka.

→ Geothermal Energy:

Geothermal energy is the heat energy which is obtained from the earth. This heat energy can be used to generate power.
USA has the world’s largest geothermal power plants followed by New Zealand, Iceland, Philippines and Central America. In India, geothermal plants are situated in Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh and Puga Valley in Ladakh.

→ Tidal Energy:

Tidal energy is the energy generated from tides.
Electricity is produced during high tide the energy of the tides is used to turn the turbine installed in the dam.
Russia, France and the Gulf of Kachchh in India have huge tidal mill farms.

→ Biogas:

Biogas is a gaseous fuel made of organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal dung and kitchen waste. These wastes are converted into the gaseous fuel.
The organic waste is decomposed by bacteria in biogas digesters to emit biogas which is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 8 Confronting Marginalisation

November 16, 2024November 15, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 8 Confronting Marginalisation

→ Religious solace, armed struggle, self improvement and education, economic uplift – there appears to be no one way of doing things. Adivasis, Dalits, Muslims, women and other marginal groups argue that simply by being citizens of a democratic country, they possess equal rights that must be respected.

→ Invoking Fundamental Rights:

The marginalised have drawn on the rights in two ways: first, by insisting on their Fundamental Rights, they have forced the government to recognise the injustice done to them. Second, they have insisted that the government enforce these laws.
In some instances, the struggles of the marginalised have influenced the government to frame new laws in keeping with the spirit of the Fundamental Rights.
Article 17 of the Constitution states that untouchability has been abolished, this means that no one can henceforth prevent Dalits from educating themselves, entering temples, using public facilities, etc.
Untouchability is a punishable crime now.
Article 15 of the Constitution notes that no citizen of India shall be discriminated
against on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. This has been used by Dalits to seek equality where it has been denied to them.
Dalits can ‘invoke’ or ‘draw on’ a Fundamental Right (or Rights) in situations where they feel that they have been treated badly by some individual or community or even by the government.
By granting different forms of cultural rights, the Constitution tries to ensure cultural justice to such groups.
The Constitution does this so that the culture of these groups is not dominated nor wiped out by the culture of the majority community.

→ Laws for the Marginalised:

There are specific laws and policies for the marginalised in our country.
There are policies or schemes that emerge through other means like setting up a committee or by undertaking a survey, etc.

→ Promoting Social Justice:

As part of their effort to implement the Constitution, both state and central governments create specific schemes for implementation in tribal areas or in areas that have a high Dalit population.
One such law/policy is the reservation policy that today is both significant and highly contentious.
The laws which reserve seats in education and government employment for Dalits and Adivasis are based on an important argument.
Governments across India have their own list of Scheduled Castes (or Dalits), Scheduled Tribes and backward and most backward castes. The central government too has its list.
Students applying to educational institutions and those applying for posts in government are expected to furnish proof of their caste or tribe status, in the form of caste and tribe certificates.

→ Protecting the Rights of Dalits and Adivasis
In addition to policies our country also has specific law’s that guard against the discrimination and exploitation of marginalised communities.

→ The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989

In order to indicate to the government that untouchability was still being practised and in the most hideous manner, Dalit groups demanded new laws that would list the various sorts of violence against dalits and prescribe stringent punishment for those who indulge in them.
The Act contains a very long list of crimes some of which are too horrible even to contemplate.
The Act does not only describe terrible crimes but also lets people know what dreadful deeds human beings are capable of.
The Act distinguishes several levels of crimes. Firstly, it lists modes of humiliation that are both physically horrific and morally reprehensible and seeks to punish.
Secondly, it lists actions that dispossess Dalits and Adivasis of their meagre resources or which force them into performing slave labour.
At another level, the Act recognises that crimes against Dalit and tribal women are of a specific kind and, therefore, seeks to penalise anyone who assaults or uses force on any woman belonging to a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe with intent to dishonour her.

→ Adivasi Demands and the 1989 Act:

The 1989 Act is important for another reason – Adivasi activists refer to it to defend their right to occupy land that was traditionally theirs.
Activists have asked that those who have forcibly encroached upon tribal lands should be punished under this law.
C.K. Janu, an Adivasi activist, has also pointed out that one of the violators of Constitutional rights guaranteed to tribal people are governments in the various states of India.
She has also noted that in cases where tribals have already been evicted and cannot go back to their lands, they must be compensated.

→ Conclusion:

The existence of a right or a law or even a policy on paper does not mean that it exists in reality.
People have had to constantly work on or make efforts to translate these into principles that guide the actions of their fellow citizens or even their leaders.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 7 Understanding Marginalisation

November 16, 2024November 15, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 7 Understanding Marginalisation

→ What Does it Mean to be Socially Marginalised?

To be marginalised is to be forced to occupy the sides or fringes and thus not be at the centre of things.
In the social environment too, groups ‘ of people or communities may have the experience of being excluded. Their marginalisation can be because they speak a different language, follow different customs or belong to a different religious group from the majority community.
They may also feel marginalised because they are poor, considered to be of ‘low’ social status and viewed as being less human than others.
They experience a sense of disadvantage and powerlessness vis-a-vis more powerful and dominant sections of society who own land, are wealthy, better educated and politically powerful.
Economic, social, cultural and political factors work together to make certain groups in society feel marginalised.

→ Who are Adivasis?
Adivasis, the term literally means ‘original inhabitants’ are communities who lived and often continue to live in close association with forests.

Around 8 per cent of India’s population is Adivasi and many of India’s most important mining and industrial centres are located in Adivasi areas – Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro and Bhilai among others.
• There are over 500 different Adivasi groups in India.
Adivasis are particularly numerous in states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and in the north-eastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura.
Adivasi societies are also most distinctive because there is often very little hierarchy among them.
Adivasis practise a range of tribal religions that are different from Islam, Hinduism and Christianity.
It often involves the worship of ancestors, village and nature spirits, the last associated with and residing in various sites in the landscape – ‘mountain-spirits’, ‘river- spirits’, ‘animal-spirits’, etc.
Adivasis have always been influenced by different surrounding religions like Shakta, Buddhist, Vaishnav, Bhakti and Christianity.
Adivasis have their own languages (most of them radically different from and possibly as old as Sanskrit), which have often deeply influenced the formation of ‘mainstream’ Indian languages, like Bengali.
Santhali has the largest number of speakers and has a significant body of publications including magazines on the internet or in e-zines.

→ Adivasis and Stereotyping:

Often Adivasis are blamed for their lack of advancement as they are believed to be resistant to change or new ideas.
Adivasis are invariably portrayed in very stereotypical ways – in colourful costumes, headgear and through their dancing.
This often wrongly leads to people believing that they are exotic, primitive and backward.

→ Adivasis and Development:

Metal ores like iron and copper, and gold and silver, coal and diamonds, invaluable timber, most medicinal herbs and animal products (wax, lac, honey) and animals themselves (elephants, the mainstay of imperial armies), all came from the forests.
Forests covered the major part of our country till the nineteenth century and the Adivasis had a deep knowledge of, access to, as well as control over most of these vast tracts at least till the middle of the nineteenth century.
Often empires heavily depended on Adivasis for the crucial access to forest resources.
In the north-east, their lands remain highly militarised.
India has 104 national parks covering 40,501 sq km and 543 wildlife sanctuaries covering 1,18,918 sq km. These are areas where tribals originally lived but were evicted from.
When they continue to stay in these forests, they are termed encroachers.
Having gradually lost access to their traditional homelands, many Adivasis have migrated to cities in search of work where they are employed for very low wages in local industries or at building or construction sites.
45 per cent of tribal groups in rural areas and 35 per cent in urban areas live below the poverty line.
Many tribal children are malnourished. Literacy rates among tribals are also very low.
Destruction in one sphere naturally impacts the other. Often this process of dispossession and displacement can be painful and violent.

→ Minorities and Marginalisation

The term minority is most commonly used to refer to communities that are numerically small in relation to the rest of the population.
It encompasses issues of power, access to resources and has social and cultural dimensions.
Safeguards are needed to protect minority communities against the possibility of being culturally dominated by the majority. They also protect them against any discrimination and disadvantage that they may face.
The Constitution provides these safeguards because it is committed to protecting India’s
cultural diversity and promoting equality as well as justice.

→ Muslims and Marginalisation

Recognising that Muslims in India were lagging behind in terms of various development indicators, the government set up a high-level committee in 2005.
Chaired by Justice Rajindar Sachar, the committee examined the social, economic and educational status of the Muslim community in India. The report discusses in detail the marginalisation of this community.
The social marginalisation of Muslims in some instances have led to them migrating from places where they have lived, often leading to the ghettoisation of the community. Sometimes, this prejudice leads to hatred and violence.
The experiences of all the groups point to the fact that marginalisation is a complex phenomenon requiring a variety of strategies, measures and safeguards to redress this situation.

→ Conclusion:

Marginalisation is linked to experiencing disadvantage, prejudice and powerlessness.
Marginalisation results in having a low social status and not having equal access to education and other resources.
Marginalised communities want to maintain their cultural distinctiveness while having access to rights, development and other opportunities.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 4 Understanding Laws

November 15, 2024November 14, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 4 Understanding Laws

→ Do Laws Apply to All?

Members instituted several provisions in the Constitution that would establish the rule of law.
The most important of these was that all persons in independent India are equal before the law.
The law cannot discriminate between persons on the basis of their religion, caste or gender.
What the rule of law means is that all laws apply equally to all citizens of the country and no one can be above the law7.
Any crime or violation of law has a specific punishment as well as a process through which the guilt of the person has to be established.
In ancient India, there were innumerable and often overlapping local laws.
Different communities enjoyed different degrees of autonomy in administering these laws among their own.
The British colonialists introduced the rule of law in India.

→ Historians have disputed this claim on several grounds, two of which include:

first that colonial law was arbitrary, and
second that the Indian nationalists played a prominent role in the development of the legal sphere in British India.

→ The Sedition Act of 1870 – The idea of sedition was very broadly understood within this Act. Any person protesting or criticising the British government could be arrested without due trial.

Indian nationalists also began fighting for greater equality and wanted to change the idea of law from a set of rules that they were forced to obey, to law as including ideas of justice.
By the end of the nineteenth century, the Indian legal profession also began emerging and demanded respect in colonial courts.
There w7ere several ways in which Indians played a major role in the evolution of the rule of law during the colonial period.
Every year our representatives pass several new laws as well as amend existing ones.

→ How Do New Laws Come About?

The Parliament has an important role in making laws.
An important role of Parliament is to be sensitive to the problems faced by people.
The role of citizens is crucial in helping Parliament frame different concerns that people might have into laws.
The voice of citizen can be heard through TV reports, newspaper editorials, radio broadcasts, local meetings, all of which help in making the work that Parliament does more accessible and transparent to the people.

→ Unpopular and Controversial Laws:

Sometimes a law can be constitutionally valid and hence legal, but it can continue to be unpopular and unacceptable to people because they feel that the intention behind it is unfair and harmful.
In a democracy like ours, citizens can express their unwillingness to accept repressive laws framed by the Parliament.
When a large number of people begin to feel that a wrong law has been passed, then there is pressure on the Parliament to change this.
If the law favours one group and disregards the other it will be controversial and lead to conflict.
People who think that the law is not fair can approach the court to decide on the issue.
The court has the power to modify or cancel laws if it finds that they don’t adhere to the Constitution.
We should bear in mind that it is the extent, involvement and enthusiasm of the people that helps Parliament perform its representative functions properly.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 5 Judiciary

November 15, 2024November 14, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 5 Judiciary

→ As an organ of government, the judiciary plays a crucial role in the functioning of India’s democracy. It can play this role only because it is independent.

→ What is the Role of the Judiciary?

Courts take decisions on a very large number of issues.
The work that the judiciary does can be divided into the following:
Dispute Resolution: The judicial system provides a mechanism for resolving disputes between citizens, etc.
Judicial Review: As the final interpreter of the Constitution, the judiciary also has the power to strike down particular laws passed by the Parliament if it believes that these are a violation of the basic structure of the Constitution. This is called judicial review.
Upholding the Law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights: Every citizen of India can approach the Supreme Court or the High Court if they believe that their Fundamental Rights have been violated.

→ What is an Independent Judiciary?

Rich and powerful people in India sometimes try to influence the judicial
process, the Indian Constitution protects against this kind of situation by providing for the independence of the judiciary.
One aspect of this independence is the ‘separation of powers’.
The other branches of government, the legislature and the executive cannot interfere in the work of the judiciaiy. The courts are not under the government and do not act on their behalf.
It is the independence of the judiciary that allows the courts to play a central role in ensuring that there is no misuse of power by the legislature and the executive.
It also plays a crucial role in protecting the Fundamental Rights of citizens because anyone can approach the courts if they believe that their rights have been violated.

→ What is the structure of Court in India?

There are three different levels of courts in our country.
The courts that most people interact with are called subordinate or district courts. These are usually at the district or Tehsil level or in towns and they hear many kinds of cases.
Each state is divided into districts that are presided over by a District Judge.
Each state has a High Court which is the highest court of that state.
At the top is the Supreme Court which is located in New Delhi and is presided over by the Chief Justice of India.
In India, we have an integrated judicial system, meaning that the decisions made by higher courts are binding on the lower courts.
A person can appeal to a higher court if they believe that the judgment passed by the lower court is not just.

→ What are the Different Branches of the Legal System?
In addition to criminal law, the legal system also deals with civil law cases.

→ Does Everyone Have Access to the Courts?

In principle, all citizens of India can access the courts in this country. This implies that every citizen has a right to justice through the courts.
While the courts are available for all, in reality access to courts has always been difficult for a vast majority of the poor in India.
Legal procedures involve a lot of money and paper work as well as take up a lot of time.
The Supreme Court in the early 1980s devised a mechanism of Public Interest Litigation or PIL to increase access to justice.
The legal process was greatly simplified and even a letter or telegram addressed to the Supreme Court or the High Court could be treated as a PIL.
For the common person, access to courts is access to justice.
The courts exercise a crucial role in interpreting the Fundamental Rights of citizens and the courts interpreted Article 21 of the Constitution on the Right to Life to include the Right to Food.
There are also court judgments that people believe work against the best interests of the common person.
Another issue that affects the common person’s access to justice is the inordinately long number of years that courts take to hear a case.
The members of the Constituent Assembly had quite correctly envisioned a system of courts with an independent judiciary as a key feature of our democracy.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Understanding Our Criminal Justice System

November 15, 2024November 14, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Understanding Our Criminal Justice System

→ After a person is arrested, it is a court of law that decides whether the accused person is guilty or not.

According to the Constitution, every individual charged of a crime has to be given a fair trial.
According to Article 22 of the Constitution, ‘ every person has a Fundamental Right to be
defended by a lawyer.
Article 39A of the Constitution places a duty upon the State to provide a lawyer to any citizen who is unable to engage one due to poverty or other disability.

→ What is the Role of the Police in Investigating a Crime?

One important function of the police is to investigate any complaint about the commission of a crime.
An investigation includes recording statements of witnesses and collecting different kinds of evidence.
Police investigations always have to be conducted in accordance with law and with full respect for human rights.

→ Article 22 of the Constitution and criminal law guarantee to every arrested person the following Fundamental Rights:

The Right to be informed at the time of arrest of the offence for which the person is being arrested.
The Right to be presented before a magistrate within 24 hours of arrest.
The Right not to be ill-treated or tortured during arrest or in custody.
Confessions made in police custody cannot be used as evidence against the accused.
A boy under 15 years of age and women cannot be called to the police station only for questioning.

→ What is the Role of the Public Prosecutor?

A criminal offence is regarded as a public wrong.
What is meant by this is that it is considered to have been committed not only against the affected victims but against society as a whole.
In court, it is the Public Prosecutor who represents the interests of the State.
As an officer of the court, it is his/ her duty to act impartially and present the full and material facts, witnesses and evidence before the court to enable the court to decide the case.

→ What is the Role of the Judge?

The judge decides whether the accused person is guilty or innocent on the basis of the evidence presented and in accordance with the law.
If the accused is convicted, then the judge pronounces the sentence.

→ What is a Fair Trial?

A fair trial ensures that Article 21 of the Constitution is upheld.
For a trial to be fair, several different procedures have to be observed. Article 21 of the Constitution that guarantees the Right to Life states that a person’s life or liberty can be taken away only by following a reasonable and just legal procedure.
It is significant that the judge decided the matter only on the basis of the evidence before the court.
All need to work to ensure that every citizen, irrespective of their class, caste, gender, religious and ideological backgrounds get a fair trial when accused.
The rule of law which says that everyone is equal before the law would not make much sense if every citizen were not guaranteed a fair trial by the Constitution.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions Geography Chapter 1 Resources

November 14, 2024November 13, 2024 by Prasanna

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Solutions Geography Chapter 1 Resources

JAC Class 8th Geography Resources InText Questions and Answers

Question 1.
List out five resources you use in your home and five you use in your classroom.
Answer:
Five resources we use in our home are:
Question 2.
Circle those resources from Amnia’s list that are regarded as having no commercial value.

Five resources we use in our classroom are:

Amma’s List

Cotton cloth
Iron ore
Intelligence
Medicinal plants
Medical knowledge
Coal deposits
Beautiful scenery
Agricultural land
Clean environment
Old folk songs
Good weather
Resourcefulness
A good singing voice
Grandmother’s home remedies
Affection from friends and family

Answer:
Student need to do it on their own.

Question 3.
Think of a few renewable resources and mention how their stock may get affected by overuse.
Answer:
Some of the renewable resources that regenerate over-time such as trees, crops, wind, solar energy and water. Their stock may get affected by overuse or over utilisation because of certain reasons such as land degradation, deforestations, pollution, etc. Rivers are drying up, air becomes more polluted due to smoke from vehicles and industries. Trees are cut down to make more buildings, etc.

Question 4.
Make a list of five human made resources that you can observe around you.
Answer:
A list of five human made resources that we observe around are:

Phones
Buildings
Vehicles
Aeroplanes
Roads

JAC Class 8th Geography Resources Textbook Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Answer the following questions.
(i) Why are resources distributed unequally over the earth?
Answer:
The resources are distributed unequally over the earth because it is controlled by different factors. One of the factors is physical nature which includes climate, altitude, terrain which vary from place to place.

(ii) What is resource conservation?
Answer:
Resource conservation is to use the resources efficiently, carefully and properly and giving time to get renewed and to regenerate the resource so that it will be available for the coming generations.

(iii) Why are human resources important?
Answer:
Human resources are important because they can utilise the natural resources in a best possible way to generate more resources as they have an intelligent mind. Human resources also include technology and skills to find the suitable resource. Advantage and usefulness of resources can be best judged by human beings only.

(iv) What is sustainable development?
Answer:
Sustainable development is to use the resources in a balanced way so that we conserve it for the future generation and utilise it efficiently for our needs.

Tick the correct answer.

Question 2.
(i) Which one of the following does NOT make substance a resource?
(a) utility
(b) value
(c) quantity
Answer:
(c) quantity

(ii) Which one of the following is a human made resource?
(a) medicines to treat cancer
(b) spring water
(c) tropical forests
Answer:
(a) medicines to treat cancer

(iii) Complete the statement. Non-renewable resources are
(a) those which have limited stock
(b) made by human beings
(c) derived from non-living things
Answer:
(a) those which have limited stock

Question 3.
Activity:
“Rahiman paani raakhiye, Bin paani sab soon. Paani gaye na ubere Mod, manus, choon…” [Says Rahim, keep water, as without water there is nothing. Without water pearl, swan and dough cannot exist.] These lines were written by the poet Abdur Rahim Khankhana, one of the nine gems of Akbar’s court. What kind of resource is the poet referring to? Write in 100 words what would happen if this resource disappeared?
Answer:
The poet is referring to the water. If this resource disappear then we will face serious difficulties as water is one of the most invaluable and irreplaceable resource of life. Without water, we cannot survive and sustain. It serves many purposes such as to drink, to clean clothes and utensils and bath. For irrigation and farming, water is required very much. It is also used for cooking food. Water helps in generating electricity, industries and factories. Apart from human beings, animals, plants and trees also require water to sustain. Without water, the earth will become desert and no life will sustain. For Fun

Question 1.
Pretend that you live in the prehistoric times on a high windy plateau. What are the uses you and your friends could put the fast winds to? Can you call the wind a resource? Now imagine that you are living in the same place in the year 2138. Can you put the winds to any use? How? Can you explain why the wind is an important resource now?
Answer:
Wind has long been in use, since ancient time. It has been used for sailing boats, for navigation. Gradually wind mills were built to grind crops also to pump out water. Wind was regarded as a potential resource. However due to lack of technology it could not be harnessed completely. In 2138, we can surely see wind being used to the fullest as an actual resource. We have built wind turbines to generate electricity. We can see more and more wind turbines brings used in industrial areas, in agricultural farms to meet irrigation and electricity needs.

Question 2.
Pick up a stone, a leaf, a paper straw and a twig. Think of how you can use these as resources. See the example given below and get creative!

Answer:
Students can do the other two on their

JAC Class 8th Geography Resources Important Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1.
A substance is made a resource when it has………
(a) Value
(b) usability
(c) utility
(d) all of these
Answer:
(d) all of these

Question 2.
Value means
(a) worth
(b) deserves
(c) both ka’ and ‘b’
(d) neither ‘a’ nor ‘b’
Answer:
(c) both ka’ and ‘b’

Question 3.
Time and technology are two important factors that can change substances into .
(a) stock
(b) resource
(c) patent
(d)value
Answer:
(b) resource

Question 4.
Natural resources contains
(a) air
(b) wind
(c) water
(d) all of these
Answer:
(d) all of these

Question 5.
The distribution of natural resources depends on…….
(a) terrain
(b) altitude
(c) both ka’ and kb’
d. none of these
Answer:
(c) both ka’ and kb’

Question 6.
Non-renewable resource is…….
(a) natural gas
(b) solar energy
c. wind energy
d. soil
Answer:
a. natural gas

Question 7.
Water is a………
(a) non-renewable resource.
(b) renewable resource.
(c) either ‘a’ or ‘b’
(d) none of these
Answer:
(b) renewable resource.

Question 8.
Resources to conserved for…..
(a) future generations.
(b) present generations.
(c) not required to conserve.
(d) both ‘a’ and kb’
Answer:
(d) both ‘a’ and kb’

Question 9.
Human resource refers to the
(a) quantity
(c) mental ability
(b) physical ability
(d) all of these
Answer:
(d) all of these

Question 10.
Buildings, bridges are
(a) human-made.
(b) non-renewable.
(c) renewable resource.
(d) resource conservation.
Answer:
(a) human-made.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Which value is associated with resources?
Answer:
Economic value is associated withresources.

Question 2.
What do you mean by patent?
Answer:
Patent means the full and unshared right over any idea or invention of any particular thing.

Question 3.
What are the different types of resource?
Answer:
The different types of resources are:

Natural resources
Human made resources
Human resources

Question 4.
What do mean by natural resource?
Answer:
Natural resources are the resources which are drawn from nature, environment and used without much alterations and moderations.

Question 5.
Name the two natural resources.
Answer:
The two natural resources are:

Renewable resource
Non-renewable resource

Question 6.
Which resource has a limited stock? Answer: Non-renewable resource has a limited stock.

Question 7.
What do mean by human made resource?
Answer:
Human made resources are the resources which are generated and made by human beings.

Question 8.
Define human resource development.
Answer:
Human resource development means to improve the caliber, standard and quality of human expertise in order to make them more efficient and useful.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Mention few concepts of Sustainable Development.
Answer:
Few concepts of Sustainable Development are:

Respect and care for all forms of life.
Improve the quality of human life.
Conserve the earth’s vitality and diversity.
Minimise the depletion of natural resources.
Change personal attitude and practices toward the environment.
Enable communities to care for their own environment.

Question 2.
What is the importance of time and technology in making a substance a resource?
Answer:
Two major and important factors are time and technology that can change substances into resources. Each invention opens new routes to many others. The invention of fire led to the practice of cooking and other processes while the invention of the wheel resulted in development of newer modes of transport. The technology to create electricity from water i.e., hydroelectricity has turned energy in fast flowing water into an important resource.

Question 3.
Our duty is to maintain and preserve the life support system that nature provides us. What are they?
Answer:
Our duty is to maintain and preserve the life support system that nature provides us. They are:

All uses of renewable resources are maintained at a certain level.
The varied range of life on the earth is conserved.
The damage to natural environmental system is lessened and reduced.

Question 4.
Stock of certain renewable resources may get affected by overuse. How?
Answer:
If we don’t use certain renewable resources efficiently such as water, soil and forest, these can affect their stock. Though water seems to be an unlimited renewable resource but shortage and drying up of natural water sources is a major issue in many parts of the world nowadays.

Question 5.
Describe the term resource and how they are classified.
Answer:
Any object, substance or material that has utility or usability makes a resource. The substances which have certain values become a resource.
Resources are classified into three parts:
Natural Resources These resources are those which are taken from nature.

Human made Resources:
These resources are those which are made by the humans and used their skill and knowledge to make the things for their own use.

Human Resources:
These resources includes human beings who serves in many ways such as teachers, doctors, etc.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Distinguish between natural resources and human made resources.
Answer:

Natural Resources	Human Made Resources
Natural resources are the resources that are used from nature and used without much alteration and changes.	When humans use natural things to make something new that provides utility and value to our lives, it is called human-made resources. For instance, when we use metals, wood, cement, sand, and solar energy to make buildings, machinery,
Most of these resources can be used directly as they are free gifts of nature.	vehicles, bridges, roads, etc. they become man-made resources.
Natural resources are the air we breathe, the water in our rivers and lakes, the soils minerals.	Natural substances become resources only when their original form has been changed or modified to use such as iron is extracted from iron ore.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Understanding Media

September 5, 2024September 4, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Understanding Media

→ Media can be anything and everything ranging from the stall at the local fair to the program that we see on TV.

Media is the plural form of Medium. There are different ways through which we communicate with people and society. It is a means of communication.
Television, radio and newspapers are a form of media that reaches millions of people or the masses all over the country and the world thus, they are called mass media.

→ Media and Technology:

The technology that mass media uses keeps changing from time to time. Television and the use of the Internet is a very recent phenomenon as these have come into existence for less than twenty years.
Due to certain use of technologies, newspapers, television and radio can reach millions of people.
Newspapers and magazines are the part of the print media and Television and radio are the part of the electronic media.
Technology are making us more modem. Changing technology, or machines helps media to reach more people. It not only improves the quality of sound and the images that you see. But also changes the ways in which we think about our lives.
Television has enabled us to think as members of a larger global world. Television images travel huge distances through satellites and cables and allows us to view news and entertainment channels from other parts of the world.
Television, cell phones, internet has brought the world closer to us.

→ Media and Money:

The various technologies which mass media uses are very expensive. In a news studio, it is not only the newsreader who needs to be paid but also a number of other people who help to put the broadcast together, this includes those who look after the cameras and lights etc.
Most of the television channels and newspapers are part of big business houses.
To meet the expenses, they do number of things. One of them is advertising. The mass media earns money by advertising different things such as cars, chocolates, clothes, mobile phones, etc.
Advertisements are repeated in the hope that you will go out and buy what is advertised. It is the way of convincing the common people.

→ Media and Democracy:

The media plays an important role in providing news and discussing events taking place in the country and the world in democracy.
The ways in which they can take action on the basis of news is by writing letters to the concerned minister, organising a public protest, starting a signature campaign, asking the government to rethink its programme etc.
It is important that the information should be balanced as the media has been given the role in providing information.
A balanced report is one that discusses all points of view of a particular story and then leaves it to the readers to make up their minds.
A balanced report write ups depends on the media being independent. An independent media means that no one should control and influence its coverage of news. No one should tell the media what to write or what not to write.
In a democracy, an independent media is very important.
In reality, the media is far from independent. Reasons are there for it.
The control that the government has on the media is the first reason. When the government bans or cut either a news item or scenes from a movie or the lyrics of a song from being shared with the larger public this is known as censorship. There have been periods in Indian history when the government censored the media. Between 1975-1977, the worst of these was the Emergency period.
The second reason is that despite the absence of censorship by the government, most of the newspapers nowadays fail to provide a balanced story because the business houses control the media. At times, it is in the interest of these businesses to focus on only one side of the story. Since, media needs money to run, hence it links to advertising means that it becomes difficult for media to be reporting against people who give them advertisements.
Apart from these factors, to make the news story more interesting they show only one side of the story and to increase the public support.

→ Setting Agendas:

The media also plays an important role in deciding what stories to focus and emphasize on and decides on what is newsworthy.
By emphasizing and focusing on particular issues, the media influences our thoughts, feelings and actions, and brings those issues to our attention. Due to this significant influence, it plays in our lives and in shaping our thoughts and it is generally said that the media ‘sets the agenda’.
The media positively help us to focus on an issue that affects our lives and one that we might not even have been aware of it, had it not been for media reporting.
Though there are several occasions when the media fails to focus on issues that are very much significant in our lives.
Since it is a democratic country, the media has a very important role to play in our lives because it is through the media that we hear about issues related to the working of the government. The media decides what to focus on and in this way it ‘sets the agenda’.
This is important for us to be aware that the ‘factual information’ that a news report provides is often incomplete and can be one-sided. Therefore, we need to analyse the news before coming into conclusion of the issue or news.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 7 Markets Around Us

September 5, 2024September 4, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 7 Markets Around Us

→ There are many types of markets that we may visit for our everyday needs: these can include shops, hawker’s stalls in our neighbourhood, a weekly market, a large shopping complex, perhaps even a mall.

→ Weekly Market:

The market which is held on a specific day of the week is known as the weekly market.
Weekly markets do not have permanent shops. Traders set up shops for the day and then close them up in the evening. Then they may set up at a different place the next day.
Many things are available at cheaper rates in weekly markets. The reason is when shops are in permanent buildings, they incur a lot of expenditure, they have to pay rent, electricity, fees to the government, etc. They also have to pay wages to their workers. In weekly markets, these shop owners store the things at home.
One of the advantages of weekly markets is that most things you need are available at one place.

→ Shops in the Neighbourhood:

We also buy things from other kinds of markets. There are many shops that sell goods and services in our neighbourhoods.
Many of these are the permanent shops while others are roadside stalls such as the vegetable hawker, the fruit vendor, the mechanic, etc.
Shops in the neighbourhood are useful in many ways. They are near our home and we can go there on any day of the week. Generally, the buyer and seller know each other and these shops also provide goods and things on credit.

→ Shopping Complexes and Malls:

There are other markets in the urban area that have many shops, popularly called shopping complexes.
These days in many urban areas there are large multi-storeyed air-conditioned buildings with shops on different floors known as malls.
In these urban markets, both branded and non-branded goods are found.
The companies producing the branded products, sell them through shops in large urban markets and at times through special showrooms as compared to non-branded goods, fewer people can afford to buy branded ones.

→ Chain of Markets:

The people who is present in between the producer and the final consumer are the traders. The wholesale trader first buys goods in large quantities.
Through these connections of traders that goods reach distant places. The retailer is the trader who finally sells this to the consumer.
This could be a trader in a weekly market, a hawker in the neighbourhood or a shop in a shopping complex.
A chain of markets is set up. Every city has areas for wholesale markets. This is where goods first reach and are then supplied to other traders. From these traders, the retailers buy and finally the buyers get it.

→ Markets Everywhere:

Buying and selling takes place in different ways, not through shops in the market only. People use phones and internet to place orders and get the things at their home.
There are markets that we are not so aware of because a large number of goods are bought and sold that we don’t use directly.
Generally, we don’t see all the buying and selling processes but only the final product.

→ Markets and Equality:

We can be buyers or sellers in these different markets which depends among other things and on the money that we have.
The weekly market trader earns very less compared to the profit of a shop owner in a shopping complex.
When things are sold, it encourages production and new opportunities are created for people to earn. Hence, there is inequality in the market.