Month: September 2024

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 3 Why Do We Need A Parliament?

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JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 3 Why Do We Need A Parliament?

→ The Parliament enables citizens of India to participate in decision making and control the government, thus making it the most important symbol of Indian democracy and a key feature of the Constitution.

→ Why should People Decide?

  • People from various backgrounds joined the struggle and they were inspired by the ideas of freedom, equality and participation in decision- making.
  • As far back as 1885, the Indian National Congress demanded that there be elected members in the legislature with a right to discuss the budget and ask questions.
  • The Government of India Act 1909, allowed for some elected representation.
  • While these early legislatures under the British government were in response to the growing demands of the nationalists, they did not allow for all adults to vote nor could people participate in decision making.
  • With the coming of independence, we were going to be citizens of a free country.
  • This did not mean that the government could do what it felt like, it meant that the government had to be sensitive to people’s needs and demands.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 3 Why Do We Need A Parliament?

→ People and their Representatives

  • The take-off point for a democracy is the idea of consent, i.e., the desire, approval and participation of people.
  • The basic idea in the democratic government is that the individual or the citizen are the most important person and that in principle the government as well as other public institutions need to have the trust of these citizens.
  • People would elect their representatives to the Parliament, then, one group from among these elected representatives form the government.
  • The Parliament, which is made up of all representatives together, controls and guides the government.

→ The Role of the Parliament

  • Created after 1947, the Indian Parliament is an expression of the faith that the people of India have in principles of democracy.
  • The Parliament in our system has immense powers because it is the representative of the people.
  • The Lok Sabha is usually elected once every five years.
  • Each of these constituencies elects one person to the Parliament. The candidates who contest elections usually belong to different political parties.
  • Once elected, these candidates become Members of Parliament or MPs. These MPs together make up the Parliament.
  • Once elections to the Parliament have taken place, the Parliament needs to perform the following functions:

→ To Select the National Government

  • Parliament of India consists of the President, the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha.
  • After the Lok Sabha elections, a list is prepared showing how many MPs belong to each political party.
  • For a political party to form the government, they must have a majority of elected MPs.
  • The Opposition in Parliament is formed by all the political parties that oppose the majority party/coalition formed.
  • The largest amongst these parties is called the Opposition party.
  • One of the most important functions of the Lok Sabha is to select the executive.
  • The Prime Minister of India is the leader of the ruling party in the Lok Sabha.
  • From the MPs who belong to the majority party, the Prime Minister selects ministers to work with her to implement decisions.
  • These ministers then take charge of different areas of government functioning like health, education, finance, etc.
  • The different political parties join together with similar interests as they didn’t get majority of votes and who are interested in similar concerns to form what is known as a coalition government.
  • The Rajya Sabha functions primarily as the representative of the states of India in the Parliament.
  • The Rajya Sabha can also initiate legislation and a bill is required to pass through the Rajya Sabha in order to become a law.
  • The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of various states.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 3 Why Do We Need A Parliament?

→ To Control, Guide and Inform the Government

  • The question hour is an important mechanism through which MPs can elicit information about the working of the government.
  • This is a very important way through which the Parliament controls the executive.
  • Asking questions of the government is a crucial task for every MP.
  • The Opposition parties play a critical role in the healthy functioning of a democracy.
  • The government gets valuable feedback and is kept on its toes by the questions asked by the MPs.
  • The MPs as representatives of the people have a central role in controlling, guiding and informing Parliament and this is a key aspect of the functioning of Indian democracy.

→ Law-Making
Law-making is a significant function of Parliament.

→ Who are the People in Parliament?

  • Parliament now has more and more people from different backgrounds.
  • There has also been an increase in political participation from the Dalits and backward classes.
  • There is a realisation that when interests and experiences separate us it is important to ensure that communities that have been historically marginalised are given adequate representation.
  • With this in mind, some seats are reserved in Parliament for SCs and STs.
  • Similarly, it has more recently been suggested that there should be reservation of seats for women.
  • It is issues of this kind that force the country to ask certain difficult and often unresolved questions about whether our democratic system is representative enough.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions Geography Chapter 6 Human Resource

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JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Solutions Geography Chapter 6 Human Resource

JAC Class 8th Geography Human Resource InText Questions and Answers

Page 63

Question 1.
Study Fig. 6.1 and find out of the world’s total population which continent has: Of every 100 people in the world…
JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions Geography Chapter 6 Human Resource 1
(a) only 5 per cent
(b) only 13 per cent
(c) only 1 per cent
(d) only 12 per cent
Answer:
(a) North America
(b) Africa
(c) Ocenia (Australia, New Zealand, Pacific islands)
(d) Europe

Page 64

Question 2.
Look at Fig 6.2 and find out: of these countries how many are in Asia? Colour them on a world map.
JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions Geography Chapter 6 Human Resource 2
Answer:
There are 7 countries in Asia Japan, Russia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Indonesia, India and China. On a world map, students need to colour on their own.

Page 67

Question 3.
Every human being is potential resource for the society. What will be your contribution as a human resource?
Answer:
Students need to do it on their own.

JAC Class 8th Geography Human Resource Textbook Questions and Answers

Question 2.

(i) Which does the term population distribution refer to?
(a) How population in a specified area changes over time.
(b) The number of people who die in relation to the number of people born in a specified area.
(c) The way in which people are spread across a given area.
Answer:
(c) The way in which people are spread across a given area.

(ii) Which are three main factors that cause population change?
(a) Births, deaths and marriage
(b) Births, deaths and migration
(c) Births, deaths and life expectancy
Answer:
(b) Births, deaths and migration

(iii) In 1999, the world population reached
(a) 1 billion
(b) 3 billion
(c) 6 billion
Answer:
(c) 6 billion

(iv) What is a population pyramid?
(a) A graphical presentation of the age, sex composition of a population.
(b) When the population density of an area is so high that people live in tali buildings.
(c) Pattern of population distribution in large urban areas.
Answer:
(a) A graphical presentation of the age, sex composition of a population.

Question 3.
Complete the sentences below using some of the following words:
sparsely, favourable, fallow, artificial, fertile, natural, extreme, densely When people are attracted to an area it becomes populated Factors that influence this include climate; good supplies of resources and land.
Answer:
When people are attracted to an area it becomes ..densely., populated Factors that influence this include ..favourable., climate; good supplies of …natural… resources and …fertile… land.

Question 4.
Activity
Discuss the characteristics of a society with ‘too many under 15s’ and one with ‘too few under 15s’.
Hint:
need for schools; pension schemes, teachers, toys, wheel chairs, labour supply, hospitals.
Answer:
Students need to do it on their own.

JAC Class 8th Geography Human Resource Important Questions and Answer

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1.
When was the Ministry of Human Resources Development created to help the people of India to be healthy, educated and happy?
(a) 1990
(b) 1980
(c) 1995
(d) 1985
Answer:
(d) 1985

Question 2.
More than 90 per cent of world’s population lives on about per cent of the land surface.
(a) 30
(b) 20
(c) 10
(d) 40
Answer:
(c) 10

Question 3.
Population……..is the number of people living in a unit area of the earth’s surface. India has 382 people per square per kilometer whereas the world’s average is 14 only.
(a) density
(b) pyramid
(c) distribution
(d) number
Answer:
(a) density

Question 4.
The difference between emigrant and immigrant is:
(a) An emigrant is a person leaving her home country and an immigrant is a person leaving his home country.
(b) An emigrant is a person leaving her home country and an immigrant is a person entering a new country.
(c) An immigrant is a person leaving her home country and an emigrant is a person entering a new country.
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) An emigrant is a person leaving her home country and an immigrant is a person entering a new country.

Question 5.
The main factors that brings a population change of an area are
(a) births, deaths, migration.
(b) births, deaths, style.
(c) births, deaths, religion.
(d) births, deaths, climate.
Answer:
(a) births, deaths, migration.

Question 6.
The least number of people live in the………continent.
(a) Africa
(b) Asia
(c) Antarctica
(d) Europe
Answer:
(c) Antarctica

Question 7.
The most populated continent is …….
(a) North America
(c) South America
(b) Asia
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Asia

Question 8. According to population, India’s rank in the world is…….
(a) first
(b) second
(c) third
(d) fourth
(d) none of these
Answer:
(b) second

Question 9.
Human resources differ from one another in respect of………
(a) education level
(b) sex
(c) age
(d) all of these
Answer:
(d) all of these

Question 10.
The method and way in which people are spread across the surface of the earth is called as the pattern of population.
(a) distribution
(b) density
(c) pyramid
(d) none of these
Answer:
(a) distribution

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by birth rate and death rate?
Answer:
The number of live births per 1000 persons is known as birth rate. The number of deaths per 1000 persons is known as death rate.

Question 2.
Which country has experienced a loss in population due to emigration?
Answer:
Sudan is the country which has experienced a loss in population due to emigration.

Question 3.
What is the percentage of the world’s population who lives in about 10% of the land surface?
Answer:
The world’s population who lives in about 10% of the land surface is 90 per cent.

Question 4.
Why is population growth slowing in United Kingdom?
Answer:
In United Kingdom, population growth is slowing because of both low birth and death rates.

Question 5.
What do you mean by life expectancy?
Answer:
The number of years that an average person can expect to live is known as the life expectancy.

Question 6.
What is called as the pattern of population distribution?
Answer:
The way in which people are spread across the earth surface is called the pattern of population distribution.

Question 7.
What do you understand by population density?
Answer:
By population density we understand that it is the number of people living in a unit area of the earth’s surface. It is normally expressed as per square km.

Question 8.
People migrate from rural areas to urban areas. Why?
Answer:
Within countries large number of people may move from the rural areas to urban areas in search of better employment, education and health facilities.

Question 9.
Who are immigrants?
Answer:
Immigrants are those people who arrive in a country.

Question 10.
Who are emigrants?
Answer:
Emigrants are those people who leave a country.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1:
Distinguish between productive and dependent population.
Answer:

Productive Population Dependent Population
Population engaged in productive economic activities. Population is dependent on productive population and not engaged in any economic activities.
15-59 years of age group belongs to this category. Below 15 years and above 60 years belongs to this group.
People are economically independent. People are economically dependent.

Question 2.
What is the general movement of international migrations? Why it happens?
Answer:
The general movement of international migrations is from the less developed nations to the more developed nations in search of better employment opportunities and better living standards.

Question 3.
When was Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojna (PKVY) started? What was the objective of this scheme?
Answer:
Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojna (PKVY) was started in 2015. Its aim was to train one crore Indian youth from 2016 to 2020. The objective of this scheme is to encourage towards employable skills by giving quality training to probable and existing wage earners.

Question 4.
What does the shape of a population pyramid of Japan point out? Answer: In countries like Japan, low birth rates make the pyramid narrow at the base. Decreased death rates allow numbers of people to reach old age.
JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions Geography Chapter 6 Human Resource 3
Answer:
Population Pyramid of Japan – The base of the pyramid is narrow. This indicates less birth rate when compared to the death rate. Since the birth rate is less, the number of children who grow into adults will also be considerably less. So, the overall population is also less.

Question 5.
Why some countries such as Kenya have high population growth rate?
Answer:
Some countries such as Kenya had high population growth rate because they have both high birth and death rates. Nowadays, with improved health care, the death rates have fallen but birth rates still remain high which leads to high growth rate.

Question 6.
What has caused the population explosion?
Answer:
In 1804, the world’s population reache(d) one billion. A hundred and fifty years later, in 1959 the world’s population reached 3 billion and it is often known as population explosion. Less than 40 years later, in 1999, the population doubled to 6 billion. The main reason for this growth was that with better food supplies and medicine, numbers of deaths were fallen down, while the number of births still remained fairly high.

Question 7.
Do you think climate affect the population distribution of an area? If yes, then how?
Answer:
Yes, I think climate affects the population distribution of an area. People usually avoid extreme climates that are very hot or very cold like Sahara desert, polar regions of Russia, Canada and Antarctica.

Question 8.
In brief write about the distribution of population.
Answer:
Distribution of population:

  1. More than 90 per cent of the world’s population lives in about 10 per cent of the land surface.
  2. The distribution of population in the world is extremely uneven. Some areas are very crowded and some are sparsely populated.
  3. Very few people live in high latitude areas, tropical deserts, high mountains and areas of equatorial forests. Many more people live north of the Equator than south of the Equator.
  4. Almost three-quarters of the world’s people live in two continents Asia and Africa.

Question 9.
Why do you think population study essential for the government?
Answer:
Population study is essential for the government because it helps to plan for the areas such as education, housing, social security, education, employment and environmental preservation and conservation.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain briefly the Ministry of Human Resources Development in India.
Answer:
The Ministry of Human Resources Development in India is an Indian government ministry which is responsible for the development of human resources. It has been divided into departments:

  • The Department of School Education and Literacy: it deals with primary education and literacy.
  • The Department of Higher Education: it deals with secondary and post-secondary education.

In 1910, under the British rule, the department originated as the Indian Education Department. After independence, the Ministry of Education was created in 1947. The Ministry of Education was merged with the newly created Ministry of Human Resources Development in 1985. The Ministry’s objective is to achieve universal access and enrollment, universal retention of children upto 14 years of age in school and essential and fundamental improvement in the quality of education to enable all children to achieve substantial levels of learning. Also paying special attention to disadvantaged groups such as the poor, females and the minorities.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions

JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions Geography Chapter 5 Industries

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JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Solutions Geography Chapter 5 Industries

JAC Class 8th Geography IndustriesIn Text Questions and Answers

Page 48

Question 1.
Trace the journey of your shirt from a cotton field to your wardrobe.
Answer:
Cotton yam that is used in making cotton garments have to go through a long journey from fields to our wardrobes. The first step is naturally growing cotton in the fields which takes a long time and lot of efforts. Cotton is found in small bud like structures. During harvesting season, farmers pluck out cotton buds and separate raw cotton. The raw cotton is then spinned on a hand loom or power loom. After spinning, cotton yam is weaved to make finished cotton cloth. This cloth is used by tailors to make different garments and sold to retailers. We buy garments from retailers and that is how it reaches us.

Page 49

Question 2.
Give some examples of agro-based industries.
Answer:
Some agro-based industries are tea industry, sugar industry, textile industry, food processing industries.

Page 50

Question 3.
Find out the inputs, outputs and processes involved in the manufacture of a leather shoe.
Answer:
The inputs, outputs and processes involved in the manufacture of a leather shoe:

Input:
Raw material, labour, land cost, transportation cost, infrastmcture.

Output:
Leather shoes

Processes:
Activities to convert hide into leather, washing, cleaning, cutting into different design, sewing, polishing, packing, then out for sale in market.

Page 55

Question 4:
With the help of an atlas identify some iron and steel industries in India and mark their location on an outline map of India.
Answer:
Students need to do it on their own.

Page 58

Question 5.
Collect different types of pieces of cloth from a tailor’s shop and classify them under cotton, silk, synthetic and woolen. Find out the raw materials used in their manufacturing.
Answer:
Students need to do it on their own. Raw material cotton crop silkworm yam wool

Page 58

Question 6.
On an outline map of the world mark the places which provide raw material to cotton textile industry of Osaka.
Answer:
Students need to do it on their own.

JAC Class 8th Geography Industries Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer The Following Questions.

Question 1.

(i) What is meant by the term ‘industry’?
Answer:
The term ‘Industry’ deals with the economic activity that is concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals or the provision of services.

(ii) Which are the main factors which influence the location of an industry?
Answer:
The main factors which influence the location of an industry are land, labour, water, power, availability of raw materials, transport and market.

(iii) Which industry is often referred to as the backbone of modern industry and why?
Answer:
Iron and steel industry is often referred to as the backbone of modem industry because most of the things are either made of iron or steel or whose products are used as raw materials for other industries.

(iv) Why cotton textile industry rapidly expanded in Mumbai?
Answer:
Cotton textile industry rapidly expanded in Mumbai because of many favourable conditions such as it has warm and moist climate, facility of port for importing machineries, availability of raw materials and skilled labour easily.

Tick the correct answer.

Question 2.

(i) Fort Gloster is located in
(a) West Bengal
(b) California
(c) Gujarat
Answer:
(a) West Bengal

(ii) Which one of the following is a natural fibre?
(a) nylon
(b) jute
(c) acryclic
Answer:
(b) jute

Distinguish between the followings.

Question 3.

(i) Agro-based and mineral based industry
Answer:

Agro-based industry Mineral based industry
Plants and animal based products are used as raw materials. Mineral ores are used as raw materials.
It provides employment mostly in rural areas. It provides employment in both mral and urban areas.
Examples: jute industry, cotton industry, diary products, etc. Examples: iron and steel industry, etc.

(ii) Public sector and joint sector industry
Answer:

Public sector industry Joint sector industry
These industries are owned and run by the government. These industries are owned and operated by the state as well as individuals.
Examples: Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd., BHEL, Steel Authority of India Ltd., etc. Examples: Maruti Udyog, etc.
These are managed by the workforce appointed by the government. These are managed by government as well as private employees.

Question 4.
Give two examples of the following in the space provided:
(i) Raw Materials: ………..and……….
Answer:
plants, ores.

(ii) End products:………. and………..
Answer:
Motorbikes, shoes

(iii) Tertiary Activities:……… and ………
Answer:
Banking, transport

(iv) Agro-based Industries:………… and ……
Answer:
Jute, sugar industry

(v) Cottage Industries: …… and ……
Answer:
Pottery, mats
Answer:

(vi) Co-operatives: and
Answer:
Sudha dairy, Khadi industry

Question 5.
Activity
How to identify a location for establishing an industry :
Divide your class into groups. Each group is a Board of Directors faced with the problem of choosing a suitable site for an iron and steel plant of Developed Dweep. A team of technical experts has submitted a report with notes and a map. The team considered access to iron ore, coal, water and limestone, as well as the main market, sources of labour and port facilities. The team has suggested two sites, X and Y. The Board of Directors has to take the final decision about where to locate the steel plant.

  • Read the report submitted by the team.
  • Study the map to find out the distances of the resources from each site.
  • Give each resource a ‘weight’ from 1 to 10, according to its importance. The greater the ‘pull’ of the factor on the industry the higher the weight from 1 to 10.
  • Complete the table on the next page.
  • The site with the lowest total should be the most satisfactory site.
  • Remember each group of directors can decide differently.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions Geography Chapter 5 Industries 1
Report Factors/Resources affecting the location of a proposed Iron and Steel Plant on Developed Dweep.

  • Iron ore:
    This is a very large deposit of low grade iron ore. Long distance transportation of the ore would be uneconomic.
  • Coal:
    The only coalfield contains rich deposits of high grade coal. Transportation of the coal is by railway, which is relatively cheap.
  • Limestone:
    This is widely available over the island, but the purest deposits are in the Chuna Mountains.
  • Water:
    Both the tributaries of River Neel carry sufficient water to supply a large iron and steel plant in all seasons. The sea water because of its high salt content is unsuitable.
  • Market:
    It is expected that the chief market for the Plant’s products will be the engineering works of Rajdhanipur. Transport costs for the products-mainly small steel bars and light steel plates would be relatively low.
  • Labour supply:
    This will have to be recruited mainly from the unskilled workers in the 3 fishing villages of Hill, Rah and
    Sing. It is expected that most workers will commute daily from their present homes.
  • Port facilities:
    These are at present minimal. There is a good, deep natural harbour at port Paschimpur developed to import metal alloys.
Resource Distance from X Distance from X Weighting 1-10 Distance X weight for site X Distant X weight for site Y
Iron ore
Coal
Limestone
Water
Chief market
Labour supply
Total =

Students need to do it on their own

JAC Class 8th Geography Industries Important Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1:
The countries where the textile industries concentrated are…….. .
(a) Japan
(b) India
(c) Taiwan
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

Question 2.
Steel is widely used for industrial purposes because
(a) of ability to resist rusting.
(b) of being tough.
(c) both a and b
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) both a and b

Question 3.
The is a mineral based industry.
(a) coffee
(b) petrochemical
(c) sugar
(d) cotton
Answer:
(b) petrochemical

Question 4.
Public sector plants market their steel through:
(a) SAIL
(b) Tata Steel
(c) TISCO
(d) HAL
Answer:
(a) SAIL

Question 5.
In India, has emerged as the ‘electronic city’.
(a) Bengaluru
(b) Mumbai
(d) Pune
Answer:
(a) Bengaluru

Question 6.
The first cement plant was setup in….. .
(a) Kolkata
(b) Chennai
(d) Delhi
Answer:
(b) Chennai

Question 7.
Silica is used as raw material in industries.
(a) steel
(b) aluminum
(c) cement
(d) none of these
A(c) cement

Question 8.
The largest producer and consumer of steel in the world is/ are
(a) India
(b) China
(c) USA
(d) both b and c
Answer:
(b) China

Question 9.
The challenge that Jute industry facein India is/are:
(a) competition from synthetic substitution.
(b) poor market price.
(c) low productivity of labour.
(d) high cost.
Answer:
(a) competition from synthetic substitution.

Question 10.
Industrial accidents usually happen due to
(a) technical failure.
(b) negligence.
(c) irresponsible handling of materials.
(d) all of these
Answer:
(d) all of these

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Which industry uses Bauxite as raw material?
Answer:
The industry which uses Bauxite as raw material is Aluminum industry.

Question 2.
Which place/city is known as the ‘Manchester of India’?
Answer:
Ahmadabad is known as the ‘Manchester of India’.

Question 3.
Where was the first textile mill in India established?
Answer:
The first textile mill in the country was established at Fort Gloster near Kolkata.

Question 4.
What are the major hubs of Information Technology industry in the world.
Answer:
The major hubs of Information Technology industry are the Silicon Valley of Central California and the Bangalore region of India.

Question 5.
In which countries iron and steel industries in the world are located?
Answer:
The countries in which iron and steel industry is located are Germany, USA, China, Japan and Russia.

Question 6.
What is the link between the mines and the industry in Pittsburgh?
Answer:
The link between mines and the industry in Pittsburgh is one of the world’s best routes for shipping ore cheaply – the famous Great Lakes waterway.

Question 7.
From where does the iron ore come to Pittsburgh?
Answer:
The iron ore come to Pittsburgh from the iron mines at Minnesota, about 1500 km from Pittsburgh.

Question 8.
What do you mean by sunrise industries? Give examples.
Answer:
Emerging industries are also known as ‘Sunrise Industries’. These industries include Information Technology, Wellness, Hospitality and Knowledge.

Question 9:
Where do we find the major industrial regions of the world?
Answer:
Major industrial regions of the world are eastern North America, western and central Europe, eastern Europe and eastern Asia.

Question 10.
In which year, the industrial disaster occurred in Bhopal?
Answer:
On 3rd December 1983, the industrial disaster occurred in Bhopal.

Short Answer Type Questions 

Question 1.
Which industries have replaced the cotton textile industry of Osaka?
Answer:
The cotton textile industry of Osaka has been replaced by other industries, such as iron and steel, machinery, ship building, automobiles, electrical equipment and cement.

Question 2.
What does industrial system composed of?
Answer:
Industrial system composed of the following things:

  • input
  • processes
  • output.

Question 3.
What do you mean by marine based industries?
Answer:
The products from sea and oceans are used as raw materials in marine based industries. Some examples of this industries are manufacturing fish oil, processing sea food.

Question 4.
List the important industrial regions of India.
Answer:
Industrial regions of India are:

  • Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut region
  • Mumbai-Pune region
  • Ahmedabad-Baroda region
  • Chhota Nagpur region
  • Bengaluru-Tamil Nadu region
  • Vishakhapatnam-Guntur region

Question 5.
Why several textile mills close down in Ahmedabad in recent years?
Answer:
Several textile mills have closed down in Ahmedabad in recent years because of the emergence of new textile centres in the country as well as non-upgradation of machines and technology in the mills of Ahmedabad.

Question 6.
What products do industrial plants in Jamshedpur produce?
Answer:
In Jamshedpur, several other industrial plants were set up after TISCO. They produce chemicals, locomotive parts, agricultural equipment, machinery, tinplate, cable and wire.

Question 7.
Why did the cotton textile industry in India could not compete with the industries in the west initially?
Answer:
The production of handwoven cotton textile was expensive and time consuming. Hence, traditional cotton textile industry could not face the competition from the new textile mills of the West, which produced cheap and good quality fabrics.

Question 8.
List the similar points between information technology industry in Bangalore and California.
Answer:
Similar points between information technology industry in Bangalore and California are:

  1. Presence of high quality educational institutions and advanced scientific and technological centres.
  2. Availability of skilled work force.
  3. Good access to markets.
  4. Pleasant climate with an attractive and a clean environment.
  5. Well developed and well connected.

Question 9.
What do you mean by small scale industry?
Answer:
Small scale industries run on small capital and technology that produce large volumes of products such as silk weaving and food processing industries.

Question 10.
What do you mean by secondary activities?
Answer:
In secondary activities or manufacturing, raw materials are changed into products of more value to people. Such as, pulp changes into paper and paper into notebook. These steps represent the different level of manufacturing processes.

Long Answer Type Questions 

Question 1.
On the basis of ownership, industries can be classified into how many parts? Explain.
Answer:
On the basis of ownership, industries can be classified into 4 sectors. They are private sector, state owned or public sector, joint sector and cooperative sector.Private sector industries are owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals. Examples are Reliance Industries, Adani Groups, Birla Groups, etc The public sector industries are owned and operated by the government.

Examples are Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, Steel Authority of India Limited, BHEL, etc Joint sector industries are owned and operated by the state and individuals or a group of individuals. An example of joint sector industry is Maruti Udyog Limite(d) Co-operative sector industries are owned and operated by the producers orsuppliers of raw materials, workers or both. Example of co-operative venture are Anand Milk Union Limited and Sudha Dairy.

Question 2.
On the basis of raw materials, industries can be classified Explain.
Answer:
On the basis of raw materials, industries can be classified into the following industries: agro-based, mineral based, marine based and forest based Agro-based industries use plant and animal based products as their raw materials. Examples of agro-based industries are food processing, vegetable oil, cotton textile, dairy products and leather industries. Mineral based industries are primary industries that use mineral ores as their raw materials. The products of these industries feed other industries.

Example Iron made from iron ore is the product of mineral based industry and this is used as raw material for the manufacture of a number of other products, such as heavy machinery, building materials and railway coaches. Marine based industries use products from the sea and oceans as raw materials. Some examples are industries processing sea food or manufacturing fish oil. Forest based industries utilise forest produce as raw materials. The industries associated with forests are pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, furniture and buildings.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Solutions

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 5 Rulers and Buildings

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JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 5 Rulers and Buildings

→ Kings and their officers built two kinds of structures between the eighth and the eighteenth centuries: the first were forts, palaces and tombs which were safe, protected and the second were structures meant for public activity including temples, mosques, tanks, wells, caravan, sarais and bazaars. From the eighteenth century only, domestic architecture like large mansions (havelis) of merchants has survived.

→ Engineering Skills and Construction:

  • Buildings and monuments provide a deep understanding of the technologies used for construction.
  • Architects started adding more rooms, doors and windows to buildings between the seventh and tenth centuries.
  • The trabeate or corbelled style was used in the construction of temples, mosques, tombs and in buildings attached to large stepped-wells (baolis) between the eighth and thirteenth centuries.
  • From the twelfth century, two technological and stylistic developments are visible. First is the weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows was sometimes carried by arches. This architectural form was called “arcuate”. Second is, the use of Limestone cement increased in construction.
  • The temples were decorated with detailed carved structures and had shikhara as well in the early eleventh century.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 5 Rulers and Buildings

→ Building Temples, Mosques and Tanks
As temples and mosques were the places of worship hence they were beautifully constructed. They also exhibit the pow’er, wealth and devotion of the patron.
JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 5 Rulers and Buildings 1

  • Kings constructed all the largest temples. These depicted the”picture of the world they rule. On the other hand, the other lesser deities in the temples were gods and goddesses of the allies and subordinates of the ruler. The temple w’as a miniature model of the world ruled by the king and his allies.
  • There were people who did not claim to be incarnations of god and they were Muslim Sultans and Padshahs but Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the “Shadow of God”.
    Rulers got the chance to proclaim their close relationship with God by constructing the places of worship which was important in an age of rapid political change. Rulers also offered encouragement and support to the learned and pious people.
  • Sultan Iltutmish constructed a large reservoir just outside Dehli-i Kuhna called as the Hauz-i Sultani or the “King’s Reservoir” for which he acclaimed lots of respect universally.

→ Why were Temples Targeted?

  • Temples were built by the kings to demonstrate their devotion to God and their power and wealth, hence they attacked on one another’s kingdoms and looted the temples.
  • In the early ninth century, the Pandyan king Shrimara Shrivallabha invaded Sri Lanka and defeated the king, Sena I (831-851) and seized the Buddha monasteries and all the jewels. This blowed the pride of them.
  • In the early eleventh century, when the Chola King Rajendra I built a Shiva temple in his capital. He filled it with prized statues of gods and goddesses seized from defeated rulers.
  • Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni destroyed the temples during war as the one he did was Somnath temple which was attacked many times and sacked the temple as he tried to win credit and accolades. Even Portuguese attacked the temples and mosques in 1546.

→ Gardens, Tombs and Forts:

  • Architecture became more complex under the Mughals. Babur was interested in planning and laying out formal gardens which were placed within rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels called as Chahar Bagh.
  • During Akbar’s reign, many important architectural innovations happened. One of the important aspects of Mughal architecture which was first visible in Humayun’s tomb was the central towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq).
  • During Shah Jahan’s reign, we observe a huge amount of construction activity especially in Agra and Delhi. The ceremonial halls were carefully planned for public and private audience (diwan-i khas or diwan-i aam). These courts were also described as chihil sutnn or forty-pillared halls, placed within a large courtyard.
  • The Chahar Bagh garden was also known as the “river-front garden”. The Taj Mahal, the greatest architectural accomplishment of Shah Jahan’s reign also adapted the river-front garden.
  • He developed this form of architecture as a means to control the access that people had to the Yamuna river.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 5 Rulers and Buildings

→ Region and Empire:

  • Between the eighth and eighteenth centuries there was also a considerable sharing of ideas across regions due to increased construction activities, the traditions of one region were adopted by another.
  • The local rulers in Bengal had developed a roof that was designed to resemble a thatched hut. This “Bangla dome” was liked by the Mughals very much that they used it in their architecture. The impact of other regions was also evident. In Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur Sikri many of the buildings used the architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 4 The Mughal Empire

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JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 4 The Mughal Empire

→ In the middle age, Mughals had a very powerful empire. From the latter half of the sixteenth century till the seventeenth century, they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi and controlled nearly over all the subcontinent.

→ Who were the Mughals?

  • The Mughals were the successor of the two great descent of rulers.
  • From their maternal side, they were the descendants of Genghis Khan and from their paternal side, they were the descendant of Timur. However, Mughals were proud of their Timurid ancestry. They celebrated their genealogy pictorially.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 4 The Mughal Empire

→ Mughal Military Campaigns

  • The first Mughal emperor, Babur captured Delhi and Agra by defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat in the year 1526.
  • After the death of Babur in 1530, his son Humayun became the second Mughal emperor.
  • Humayun was defeated by Sher Khan twice in Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540) and forced him to flee to Iran. He recaptured Delhi in 1555 with the help of Safavid Shah but died in an accident a year later.
  • At the age of 13 years, Akbar became the emperor of Delhi. He was handling
    the empire successfully as he was very competent. He seized Chittor in 1568 and Ranthambhor in 1569. He started the military campaign in Gujarat during the period 1570-1585 which was followed by the campaigns in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa. In 1605, Akbar died.
  • Jahangir became emperor in 1605, he was the son of Akbar. He continued the military campaigns started by Akbar. He campaigned against Sikhs and Ahoms. He died in the year 1627.
  • Shah Jahan continued the campaign in the Deccan. Amongst Shah Jahan’s sons there was a conflict over succession. Aurangzeb was victorious and his three brothers were killed including Dara Shukoh in Agra, Shah Jahan was imprisoned for the rest of the life. He died in the year 1666.
  • Aurangzeb succeeded the throne and one of his major campaign was against Maratha chieftain Shivaji. Initially, Aurangzeb got success but later on Shivaji became an independent king and resumed campaigns against Mughals.
  • Marathas started the guerrilla warfare hence from 1698, Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns. He also faced revolt in north India of the Jats, Sikhs and Satnamis.

→ Mughal Traditions of Succession
Mughal followed the Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance means a division of the inheritance amongst all the sons. They didn’t believe in the rale of primogeniture or birthright, where the eldest son inherited his father’s estate.

→ Mughal Relations with Other Rulers

  • Mughal campaigned constantly against rulers who refused to accept their authority. But many rulers also joined them voluntarily as the Mughals became powerful. The Rajputs were the one who joined. Many of them married their daughters into Mughal families and received high positions. But many were against them as well like the Sisodiya Rajputs.
  • However, they were honourably treated by the Mughals even if defeated, given their lands (watan) back as assignments (watanjagir).

→ Mansabdars and Jagirdars

  • The people who joined Mughal service were enrolled as Mansabdars. They were an individual who holds a mansab which means to hold a position or a rank.
  • Mughals used a grading system to fix three things viz; rank, salary and military responsibilities.
  • Zat was a numerical value which determined the rank and salary.
  • Mansabdars received their salary as revenue assignments known as jagirs which were similar to iqtas.
  • Jagirs were carefully assessed during the Akbar’s reign so that their salary were more or less equal to the mansabdar. But it was not same in the reign of Aurangzeb means the actual revenue collected was often very less from the granted sum. Hence, many jagirdars tried to extract as much revenue as possible while they had a jagir.

→ Zabt and Zamindars

  • The term zamindar was used to describe all intermediaries, whether they were local headmen of villages or powerful chieftains.
  • Akbar’s revenue minister, Todar Mai did a survey on crop yield and based on the data he fixed the tax on each crop for a ten-year period from 1570-1580.
  • The revenue system was introduced by Todar Mai and was called as zabt.
  • Zamindars had powers. Due to Mughal exploitation, zamindars and peasants revolted against them. Hence, from the end of the seventeenth century, it challenged the stability of the Mughal Empire.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 4 The Mughal Empire

→ A Closer Look – Akbar’s Policies

  • Abul Fazl wrote Akbar Nama which gives us details about Akbar’s reign.
  • As per Abul Fazl. the empire was divided into provinces known as subas and were governed by a subadar. Each province had a diwan or a financial officer.
  • Subadars were supported by different officers. They were the military paymaster called as Bakhshi. the minister in charge of religious and patronage called as Sadr, military commanders known as Faujdars and town police commissioners known as Kotwal.
  • Religious discussions were done at ibadat khana. Akbar got support from Abul Fazl in framing a vision of governance around the idea of Sulh-i Kul. These principles were later followed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan.

→ The Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century and After

  • Mughal empire had administrative and military efficiency which led to economic and commercial prosperity. They enjoyed a great deal of influence and power.
  • The wealthier peasantry, artisans, merchants were rising high in monetary terms and
    power, whereas, the primary producers lived in poverty.
  • Hence, by the end of the seventeenth century, the Mughal empire started declining which gave rise to many independent provinces like Hyderabad and Awadh.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 1 Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years

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JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 1 Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years

→ The Arab geographer, Al-Idrisi made the map of the world in 1154 CE showing Indian subcontinent.

  • In 1720s, French people made maps which were quite different from Al-Idrisi’s map.
  • Cartographers are the skilled people who draw and develop maps which involve scientific, technological and art aspects.

→ New and Old Terminologies:

  • Over the period of time, historical records and facts existed through different languages. There is a vast difference in grammar, vocabulary and in the meaning of words as well. The term Hindustan was used by Minhaj-i-Siraj, a Persian chronicler in 13th century, which has now become India.
  • Babur in the early 16th century used “Hindustan” to describe the geography, fauna and the culture of the subcontinent. Whereas, in 14th century, Amir Khusrau used, the word “Hind” for the same context.
  • Historians are very cautious about the terms and words they use as they had different meanings in the past. For example, by “foreigner” we mean who is not Indian. But in the medieval time, it meant any unfamiliar person who was part of the same village but not a part of the particular society or culture.
  • In Hindi, the term pardesi and in Persian ajnabi are used for “foreigner”.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 1 Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years

→ Historians and their Sources:

  • Historians use different sources to learn about the past. These sources are coins, inscriptions, textual records and architecture.
  • People started using paper in this period and historians got many information. They used to write holy texts, ruler’s chronicles, letters and teachings of saints.
  • Manuscripts were kept in libraries and archives. They were collected from wealthy people, monasteries, rulers and temples.
  • Manuscripts helped the historians but faced many difficulties as scripts were handwritten. Printing press was not invented.
  • People used to revise their chronicles at different times. The 14th century author, Ziyauddin Barani wrote his first chronicle in 1356 CE and second one after two years and they differ a lot with each other.

→ New Social and Political Groups:

  • Historians faced challenges between 700 BC and 1750 CE as there were many different technological developments took place. Some of them were the spinning wheel in weaving, the Persian wheel in irrigation and firearms in combat.
  • The subcontinent also saw development in food and beverages; potatoes, chillies, com, tea, coffee. This came with people and hence it was a period of political, social, economic and cultural changes.
  • One of the influential communities emerged in this period. It was of Rajputs or “Rajaputra”. They were warriors, rulers, chieftains, soldiers and were known as Kshatriyas by caste which existed from 8th to 14th centuries.
  • This period experienced the extension of agriculture and clearing of forests. Many forest dwellers migrated and changed their habitat.
  • Peasant group came into existence influenced by regional markets, monasteries, chieftains and temples.
  • Gradually, people were grouped into sub-castes or “jatis” based on their occupation. The status of the same jati could vary from place to place. These were not permanent and diversified according to the power, influence and resources controlled by members of the jati.
  • Jati Panchayats were formed. They framed their own rules and regulations. But jatis were also bound to follow the rules of the village.
  • Chieftain governed several villages which was a small unit of a state.

→ Region and Empire:

  • By 700 CE many regions developed their own geographical dimensions along with their own languages and cultural traits.
  • Between 700 and 1750 CE, there were significant developments as many areas were ruled by different kingdoms.

→ Old and New Religions:

  • During these 1000 years, religious tradition developed majorly.
  • Hinduism saw many changes during this period. It includes worshipping of new deities, construction of temples by kingdoms and rise of Brahmanas as a prominent group in society.
  • Other developments were the rising of the idea of bhakti.
  • Muslims regarded Quran as their holy book. It appeared in 7th century and the teachings were brought by the merchants in the subcontinent.
  • There were sets of followers in Islam as well and divided into two sects – Shia and Sunni.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 1 Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years

→ Thinking about Time and Historical Periods

  • British historians in the middle of the 19th century divided the history of India into three periods – Hindu, Muslim and British.
  • Their concept was based on religion of the ruler as there was no major development in the social, economic or cultural aspects.
  • The Indian societies–reached a level of prosperity that attracted many European trading companies.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 9 The Making of Regional Cultures

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JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 9 The Making of Regional Cultures

→ Today regional cultures are often the product of complex processes of intermixing of local traditions and cultures with the ideas from the other parts of the subcontinent. Some of the traditions appear to be specific to some regions or areas, others seem to be similar across regions and yet others derive from older practices in a specific region but take a new form in other regions.

→ The Cheras and the Development of Malayalam:

  • In the ninth century, the Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the south-western part of the peninsula which is now a part of present-day Kerala and Malayalam was spoken and used in this area. In official records in the subcontinent, this one is the earliest examples of the use of a regional language.
  • But at the same time, the Cheras also drew upon Sanskritic traditions. Around the twelfth century, the first literary works in Malayalam are directly bounded to Sanskrit. A fourteenth-century text, named as the Lilatilakam was composed in Manipravalam means ‘diamonds and corals’ referring to the two languages which were Sanskrit and the regional language.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 9 The Making of Regional Cultures

→ Rulers and Religious Traditions: The Jagannatha Cult:

  • Regional cultures grew around religious traditions in other regions. One of the best instance of this process is the cult of Jagannatha which means lord of the world, a name for Vishnu at Puri, Orissa (now Odisha).
  • Till date, the local tribal people make the wooden image of the deity which suggests that the deity was originally a local god.
  • One of the major rulers of the Ganga Dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to erect a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri in the twelfth century. In 1230, King Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and announced officially himself as the ‘deputy’ of the god.
  • Those who conquered Orissa (now Odisha) such as the Mughals, the Marathas and the English East India Company, they attempted to gain control over the temple. They thought that this would make their rule admissible to the local people as its authority in social and political matters also increased.

→ The Rajputs and Traditions of Heroism:

  • The Rajputs are often acknowledged as contributing to the distinctive culture of Rajasthan. From about eighth century, the Rajput rulers cherished the ideal of the hero who fought heroically and often choosing death on the battlefield rather than to face defeat.
  • Many stories and narratives about Rajput heroes were recorded in the form of poems and songs which were recited by specially trained minstrels.
  • Women are also portrayed as following their heroic husbands in both life and death, there are many tales about the practice of sati or the immolation of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands.

→ Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak

  • One of the dance form is Kathak which is now associated with several parts of north India. The word kathak is derived from katha which means a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for story.
  • In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the growth of the bhakti movement, Kathak began to evolve into a distinct mode of dance. Radha-Krishna tales were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila where folk dance combined with the basic gestures of the kathak story-narrators.
  • Kathak was performed in the court under the Mughal emperors and their nobles where it developed in a form of dance with a distinctive style.
  • Kathak developed in two traditions or gharanas— one in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow. Under the assistance and support of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh it grew into one of the major art form.
  • After the independence, Kathak was recognized as one of the six classical dances of India. The other classical dances are Kathakali, Bharatnatyam, Odissi, Manipuri and Kuchipudi.

→ Painting for Patrons: The Tradition of Miniatures

  • Another tradition that developed in different ways was that of miniature painting. In earlier days, miniatures were beautifully painted on palm leaves or wood found in western India which were used to illustrate Jaina texts.
  • Most of the miniatures were exchanged as gifts and were viewed only by the exclusive people, the emperor and his close associates.
  • Mughal artistic tastes had an impact on the regional courts of the Deccan and the Rajput courts of Rajasthan. But, they retained and developed their distinctive characteristics. Also the themes from mythology and poetry were described at centres such as Mewar, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh.
  • In the late seventeenth century, another region that attracted miniature paintings was the Himalayan foothills and had developed a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli. The most popular painting was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari.
  • In the mid-eighteenth century, the Kangra artists developed a style in miniature painting. The source of creativity and innovation was the Vaishnavite traditions. Kangra painting was different from others as they used soft colours including cool blues and greens, and a lyrical treatment of themes.
  • Also ordinary and simple women and men painted on pots, walls, floors, cloth and their works of art have occasionally survived, unlike the miniatures that were carefully preserved in palaces for centuries.

→ A Closer Look: Bengal – The Growth of a Regional Language

  • By the third-fourth centuries BCE, commercial ties began to develop between
    Bengal and Magadha (south Bihar) which may have led to the growing influence of Sanskrit.
  • The verbal and cultural influence from the mid-Ganga valley became stronger during fourth century. The Chinese traveller Xuan Zang in the seventh century marked that languages related to Sanskrit were in use all over Bengal.
  • Bengal became the centre of a regional kingdom under the Palas in the eighth century. When Akbar conquered Bengal in 1586, it formed the nucleus of the Bengal suba. Bengali developed as a regional language, while Persian was the language of administration.
  • By the fifteenth century, the Bengali group of dialects became united by a common literary language based on the spoken language of the western part of the region which is now known as West Bengal. Though Bengali is derived from Sanskrit, it passed through several stages of evolution. It includes a wide range of non-Sanskrit words which derived from a variety of sources such as tribal languages, Persian, and European languages all become a part of modem Bengali.
  • The early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories—one indebted to Sanskrit and the other independent of it. The first consists of translations of the Sanskrit epics, the Mangalakavyas means auspicious poems which deals with local deities and bhakti literature such as the biographies of Chaitanyadeva, the leader of the Vaishnava bhakti movement.
  • And, the second one consists of Nath literature such as the songs of Maynamati and Gopichandra and stories of Dharma Thakur, fairy tales, folk tales and ballads.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 9 The Making of Regional Cultures

→ Pirs and Temples:

  • There were community leaders who also performed and served as teachers and adjudicators and were sometimes attributed with supernatural powers. These people were referred as pirs who also get affection and respect.
  • These also included saints or Sufis and other religious personalities, brave colonisers and deified soldiers, varied Hindu and Buddhist deities and even animistic spirits. Thus, the cult of pirs became very popular and their shrines can be found everywhere in Bengal.
  • In Bengal, most of the modest brick and terracotta temples were built with the support of different Tow’ social groups, such as the Kolu (oil pressers) and the Kansari (bell metal workers). Many families belonging to these social groups got benefits with the coming of the European trading companies which created new economic opportunities.
  • Their social and economic position were improving and hence, they proclaimed their status through the construction of temples. The temples began to copy the double- roofed means dochala or four-roofed means chauchala structure of the thatched huts. This led to the evolution of the typical Bengali style in temple architecture.
  • In some of the temples particularly in Vishnupur in the Bankura district of West Bengal, decorations reached a high degree of excellence. As the interior was comparatively plain but the outer walls of many temples were decorated with paintings, ornamental tiles or terracotta tablets.

→ Fish as Food:

  • Since, Bengal is a riverine plain hence it produces plenty of rice and fish. One of the most important occupation was fishing and Bengali literature contains several references to fish. Apart from this, terracotta plaques on the walls of temples and viharas (Buddhist monasteries) depicts the scenes of fish being dressed and taken to the market in baskets.
  • From a thirteenth century Sanskrit text from Bengal, the Brihaddharma Purana permitted the local Brahmanas to eat certain varieties of fish.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 3 The Delhi Sultans

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JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 3 The Delhi Sultans

→ Delhi became an important city in the twelfth century.

  • It was under the Tomara Rajputs and Chauhans that Delhi became an important commercial centre.
  • Many rich Jaina merchants lived in the city and constructed several temples. Coins minted here, called dehliwal, had a wide circulation.
  • In the beginning of the thirteenth century, the transformation of Delhi into capital started with the foundation of Delhi Sultanate.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 3 The Delhi Sultans

→ The rulers of Delhi Table 1:

Rajput Dynasties Tomaras Early twelfth century 1165
Ananga Pala  1130 – 1145
Chauhans 1165 – 1192
Prithviraj Chauhan 1175 – 1192
Early Turkish Rulers  1206 to 1290
Qutbuddin Aybak  1206 – 1210
Shamsuddin Iltutmish  1210 – 1236
Raziyya  1236 – 1240
Ghiyasuddin Balban  1266 – 1287
Khalji Dynasty  1290 to 1320
Jalaluddin Khalji  1290 – 1296
Alauddin Khalji  1296 – 1316
Tughlaq Dynasty  1320 to 1414
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq  1320 – 1324
Muhammad Tughluq  1324 – 1351
Firuz Shah Tughluq  1351 – 1388
Sayyid Dynasty  1414 to 1451
Khizr Khan 1414 – 1421
Lodi Dynasty  1451 to 1526
Bahlul Lodi  1451 – 1489

→ Finding out about the Delhi Sultans

  • Inscriptions, coins and architecture gives us a lot of information.
  • Tarikh (singular) / tawarikh (plural), were written in Persian, the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.
  • Tawarikh were written by learned men: secretaries, administrators, poets and courtiers who lived in Delhi and advised rulers on governance, stressing the significance of just rule based on gender and birthright distinctions.
  • Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter, Raziyya, became Sultan in 1236. But she was dethroned in 1240 as nobles were not satisfied to have a queen as a ruler.

→ From Garrison Town to Empire: The Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate

  • The control of the Delhi Sultans rarely went beyond heavily fortified towns occupied by garrisons in the early thirteenth century.
  • During the reigns of Ghiyasuddin Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq expansion occurred in the Delhi Sultanate.
  • Expansions occurred along the ‘internal frontier’ and ‘external frontier’ of the Sultanate.
  • The armies of the Delhi Sultanate had defeated rival armies and seized cities. The Sultanate collected taxes from the peasantry and dispensed justice in its kingdom.

→ A Closer Look: Administration and Consolidation under The Khaljis and Tughluqs

  • To administer the vast kingdom or Sultanate it required reliable administrators and govemers.
  • Iltutmish, favoured their special slaves purchased for military service, called bandagan in Persian. They were trained and Sultan could rely and trust upon them.
  • The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued to use bandagan and raised people of humble birth, who were often their clients, to high political positions in their kingdom.
  • In Persian tawarikh, the Delhi Sultans were criticised for appointing the “low and base- born” to high offices.
  • Military commanders were appointed as governors of territories of different sizes. These lands were called iqta and their holder was called iqtadar or muqti by the Khalji and Tughluq monarchs.
  • There were three types of taxes
    1. on cultivation called kharaj and amounting to about 50 percent of the peasant’s produce,
    2. on cattle and
    3. on houses under the reign of Alauddin Khalji.
  • Genghis Khan, a Mongol ruler increased its attacks on Delhi which forced Khaljis and Tughluqs to mobilise large standing army in Delhi.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 3 The Delhi Sultans

→ The Sultanate in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries

  • The Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled Delhi and Agra until 1526 after the Tughluqs. This period saw the emergence of groups like the Afghans and the Rajputs.
  • Many independent rulers flourished and became prosperous as well in Bengal, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Malwa, Jaunpur and whole south India.
  • Sher Shah Suri established his own Suri Dynasty from 1540-1555. Sher Shah’s administration became a model which was followed by Akbar as well. He took some segment from Alauddin Khalji and made them more efficient and powerful.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 8 Devotional Paths to the Divine

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JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 8 Devotional Paths to the Divine

→ From the eighth century, various kinds of Bhakti and Sufi movements have evolved.

→ The Idea of a Supreme God

  • There was a belief that social privileges came from birth in a ‘noble’ family or a ‘high’ caste was the subject of many learned texts.
  • Most of the people were not comfortable with such ideas and turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas.
  • Rest of others felt attracted to the idea of a Supreme God who could deliver humans from such bondage if approached with full devotion or bhakti. This idea was advocated in the Bhagavadgita, which grew in popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.
  • Hence, Shiva, Vishnu and Durga were worshipped as supreme deities which came through elaborate rituals.
  • The Puranas also laid down the fact that it was possible for devotees to receive the grace of God regardless of their caste status.
  • The idea of bhakti became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas adopted these beliefs.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 8 Devotional Paths to the Divine

→ A New Kind of Bhakti in South India – Nayanars and Alvars

  • From the seventh to ninth centuries, they saw the emergence of new religious movements
    led by the Nayanars (those were the saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (those were the saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes including those considered as ‘untouchable’ such as the Pulaiyar and the Panars.
  • They strongly criticized the Buddhists and Jainas and preached avid love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation.
  • In the Sangam literature, the ideals of love and heroism are found. It is the earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during the early centuries of the Common Era and blended them with the values of bhakti.
  • In between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Chola and Pandya-kings built elaborate temples. This was also the time when their poems were compiled. Apart from this, hagiographies or religious biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were also composed.

→ Philosophy and Bhakti

  • In the eighth century, Shankara, one of the most influential philosophers of India, was born in Kerala and was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the Ultimate Reality. He preached renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge to understand the actual nature of Brahman and attain salvation.
  • In the eleventh century, Ramanuja was born in Tamil Nadu and deeply influenced by the Alvars. According to him, through intense devotion to Vishnu one can attain the salvation. He introduced the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul even when united with the Supreme God remained distinct.

→ Basavanna’s Virashaivism:

  • In the mid-twelfth century, the Virashaiva movement was initiated by Basavanna and his companions like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi. This movement began in Karnataka.
  • They were strongly supportive for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women and also against all forms of ritual and idol worship.

→ The Saints of Maharashtra

  • From the thirteenth to seventeenth centuries, Maharashtra saw many saint-poets. The most important amongst them were Dnyaneshwar (Gyaneshwar), Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well as women like Sakkubai and the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the ‘untouchable’ Mahar caste.
  • These saint-poets rejected all forms of rituals. In fact, they even rejected the idea of renunciation and preferred to live with their families and earning their livelihood like any other person.
  • As the famous Gujarati saint Narsi Mehta said, “They are Vaishnavas who understand the pain of others.”
  • Hence, a new humanist idea emerged as they insisted that bhakti lay in sharing others’ pain.
  • Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis
  • The Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis were from the religious groups that emerged
    during this period and criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order. They advocated renunciation of the world. For them meditation was the path to salvation.
  • They advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices likeyogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation. These groups became popular among the Tow’ castes.

→ Islam and Sufism:

  • Sufis rejected outward religiosity and emphasized on love and devotion to God and they were Muslim mystics.
  • Islam generated strict monotheism or submission to one God. It also rejected idol worship.
  • Shariat was a holy law developed by Muslim scholars. The Sufis often rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.
  • The Sufis too like saint poets composed poems expressing their feelings and a rich literature in prose, including anecdotes and fables, developed around them.
  • The great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.
  • They developed a detailed method of training using zikr means chanting of a name or sacred formula, contemplation, sama means singing, raqs means dancing, discussion of parables, breath control, etc., under the guidance of a master or pir. Thus, they emerged the silsilas means a genealogy of Sufi teachers, each following a slightly different method (tariqa) of instruction and ritual practice.
  • The most influential orders were the Chishti silsila among them. Many teachers were there such as Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawa Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.
  • The assemblies of the Sufi masters held in their khanqahs or hospices.
  • The tomb or dargah of a Sufi saint became a place of pilgrimage to which thousands of people of all faiths thronged and worshipped.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 8 Devotional Paths to the Divine

→ New Religious Developments in North India

  • In north India, after the thirteenth century, there was a new swing in the bhakti movement. This was the period when Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism, various strands of bhakti, and the Nathpanths, Siddhas and Yogis influenced and transformed each other.
  • Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak rejected all conservative and devout religions. Others like Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make these attainable to all. Tulsidas’s composition, the Ramcharitmanas is written in Awadhi (a language used in eastern Uttar Pradesh), is important both as an expression of his devotion for Rama and as a literary work.
  • Surdas was an avid devotee of Krishna. The Sursagara, Surasaravali and Sahitya Lahari are his composition which express his devotion.
  • In late fifteenth century, Shankaradeva of Assam focused on devotion to Vishnu and composed poems and plays in Assamese. He made namghars or houses of recitation and prayer, a practice which continues till date.
  • There were some more important saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai.
  • In the sixteenth century, Mirabai who was a Rajput princess married into the royal family of Mewar. She became a disciple of Ravidas, a saint from a caste considered ‘untouchable’.
  • Most of the saints works were composed in regional languages and could be sung. They became immensely popular and were handed down orally from generation to generation.

→ A Closer Look: Kabir

  • Kabir was one of the most influential saint in the fifteenth-sixteenth century. We get to know of Kabir’s ideas from a huge collection of verses called sakhis and pads said to have been composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers. They were later collected and preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani and Bijak.
  • His teachings were based on the rejection of the major religious traditions. The language of his poetry was understood by ordinary people as it was a form of spoken Hindi.
  • He believed in a formless Supreme God and advised that the only path to salvation was through bhakti or devotion.

→ A Closer Look: Baba Guru Nanak

  • Guru Nanak (1469-1539) bom at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib in * Pakistan) and he travelled widely before establishing a centre at Kartarpur known as Dera Baba Nanak on the river Ravi.
  • Whatever the caste, creed or gender is, his followers ate together in the common kitchen known as langar. Thus, the sacred space created by Gum Nanak was known as Dharamsala. Now it is called as Gurdwara.
  • Gum Angad who was appointed by Gum Nanak as his successor, compiled the compositions of Gum Nanak, and he added his own composition in a new script known as Gurmukhi.
  • In 1605, Gum Arjan compiled all the compositions under the name of ‘Nanak’. Other people’s writings were added to the compilation such as Shaikh Farid, Sant Kabir, Bhagat Namdev and Guru Tegh Bahadur. In 1706, this compilation was authenticated and approved by his son and successor, Gum Gobind Singh. Now, its known as Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of the Sikhs.
  • By the starting of the seventeenth century, the town of Ramdaspur now Amritsar had developed around the central Gurdwara called Harmandar Sahib which is known as Golden Temple.
  • The Khalsa Panth is the community of the Sikhs which became a political entity. It was started by Gum Gobind Singh in 1699.
  • The ideas of Gum Nanak had a huge impact on the development of the Sikh movement from the very beginning. He emphasized the importance of the worship of one God. He used the terms nam, dan and isnan for the essence of his teaching, which actually meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct.
  • Now his teachings are remembered as nam- japna, kirt-karna and vand-chhakna, which also mention the importance of right belief and worship, honest living, and helping others.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 8 Confronting Marginalisation

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JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 8 Confronting Marginalisation

→ Religious solace, armed struggle, self improvement and education, economic uplift – there appears to be no one way of doing things. Adivasis, Dalits, Muslims, women and other marginal groups argue that simply by being citizens of a democratic country, they possess equal rights that must be respected.

→ Invoking Fundamental Rights:

  • The marginalised have drawn on the rights in two ways: first, by insisting on their Fundamental Rights, they have forced the government to recognise the injustice done to them. Second, they have insisted that the government enforce these laws.
  • In some instances, the struggles of the marginalised have influenced the government to frame new laws in keeping with the spirit of the Fundamental Rights.
  • Article 17 of the Constitution states that untouchability has been abolished, this means that no one can henceforth prevent Dalits from educating themselves, entering temples, using public facilities, etc.
  • Untouchability is a punishable crime now.
  • Article 15 of the Constitution notes that no citizen of India shall be discriminated
    against on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. This has been used by Dalits to seek equality where it has been denied to them.
  • Dalits can ‘invoke’ or ‘draw on’ a Fundamental Right (or Rights) in situations where they feel that they have been treated badly by some individual or community or even by the government.
  • By granting different forms of cultural rights, the Constitution tries to ensure cultural justice to such groups.
  • The Constitution does this so that the culture of these groups is not dominated nor wiped out by the culture of the majority community.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 8 Confronting Marginalisation

→ Laws for the Marginalised:

  • There are specific laws and policies for the marginalised in our country.
  • There are policies or schemes that emerge through other means like setting up a committee or by undertaking a survey, etc.

→ Promoting Social Justice:

  • As part of their effort to implement the Constitution, both state and central governments create specific schemes for implementation in tribal areas or in areas that have a high Dalit population.
  • One such law/policy is the reservation policy that today is both significant and highly contentious.
  • The laws which reserve seats in education and government employment for Dalits and Adivasis are based on an important argument.
  • Governments across India have their own list of Scheduled Castes (or Dalits), Scheduled Tribes and backward and most backward castes. The central government too has its list.
  • Students applying to educational institutions and those applying for posts in government are expected to furnish proof of their caste or tribe status, in the form of caste and tribe certificates.

→ Protecting the Rights of Dalits and Adivasis
In addition to policies our country also has specific law’s that guard against the discrimination and exploitation of marginalised communities.

→ The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989

  • In order to indicate to the government that untouchability was still being practised and in the most hideous manner, Dalit groups demanded new laws that would list the various sorts of violence against dalits and prescribe stringent punishment for those who indulge in them.
  • The Act contains a very long list of crimes some of which are too horrible even to contemplate.
  • The Act does not only describe terrible crimes but also lets people know what dreadful deeds human beings are capable of.
  • The Act distinguishes several levels of crimes. Firstly, it lists modes of humiliation that are both physically horrific and morally reprehensible and seeks to punish.
  • Secondly, it lists actions that dispossess Dalits and Adivasis of their meagre resources or which force them into performing slave labour.
  • At another level, the Act recognises that crimes against Dalit and tribal women are of a specific kind and, therefore, seeks to penalise anyone who assaults or uses force on any woman belonging to a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe with intent to dishonour her.

→ Adivasi Demands and the 1989 Act:

  • The 1989 Act is important for another reason – Adivasi activists refer to it to defend their right to occupy land that was traditionally theirs.
  • Activists have asked that those who have forcibly encroached upon tribal lands should be punished under this law.
  • C.K. Janu, an Adivasi activist, has also pointed out that one of the violators of Constitutional rights guaranteed to tribal people are governments in the various states of India.
  • She has also noted that in cases where tribals have already been evicted and cannot go back to their lands, they must be compensated.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 8 Confronting Marginalisation

→ Conclusion:

  • The existence of a right or a law or even a policy on paper does not mean that it exists in reality.
  • People have had to constantly work on or make efforts to translate these into principles that guide the actions of their fellow citizens or even their leaders.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 7 Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities

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JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 7 Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities

→ Society was divided according to the rules of varna in most parts of the subcontinent. These rules were prescribed by the Brahmanas and were accepted by the rulers of large kingdoms. The difference between the rich and poor increased.

→ Beyond Big Cities: Tribal Societies

  • There were other kinds of societies present as well in the subcontinent who did not follow the social rules and rituals dictated by the Brahmanas. Nor they were divided into numerous unequal classes. These types of societies are called tribes.
  • There was a distinctive bond of kinship among the members of each tribe. The main source of livelihood was agriculture but there were hunter-gatherers or herders as well. There were some tribes who were nomadic and moved from one place to another.
  • Many large tribes usually lived in forests, hills, deserts and places difficult to reach. The tribes retained their freedom and preserved their separate culture in various ways.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 7 Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities

→ Who were Tribal People?

  • Tribal people did not keep written records but they preserved rich customs and oral traditions. And these were passed down to each new’ generation.
  • Some powerful tribes controlled large territories as people were found in almost every region of the subcontinent.
  • The Khokhar tribe in Punjab was very influential and powerful during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became more important. Kamal Khan Gakkhar, the chief was made mansabdar by Emperor Akbar.
  • The Langahs and Arghuns in Multan and Sind, dominated extensive regions before they were subdued by the Mughals.
  • The Balochis were another large and powerful tribe in the north-west.
  • The shepherd tribe of Gaddis lived in the western Himalaya.
  • The Nagas, Ahoms and many others too dominated the north-eastern part of the subcontinent.
  • Chero chiefdoms had emerged by the twelfth century in Bihar and Jharkhand. Akbar’s famous general Raja Man Singh attacked and defeated the Cheros in 1591.
  • The Mundas and Santals were among the other important tribes that lived in Jharkhand, Bihar, Orissa (now Odisha) and Bengal.
  • The Kolis, Berads and numerous other tribes were found in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Karnataka.
  • Far away south there were large tribal populations of Koragas, Vetars, Maravars and many others.
  • The tribe of Bhils were spread across western and central India.
  • Another tribe, the Gonds were found in good numbers across the present-day states of Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.

→ How Nomads and Mobile People Lived?

  • Nomads who lived on milk and other pastoral products and moved over long distances with their animals are called nomadic pastoralists. They also exchanged wool, ghee, etc., with settled agriculturists for grain, cloth, utensils and other products.
  • The most important trader nomads were the Banjaras. Their caravan was called tanda.
  • To transport grain to the city markets, Sultan Alauddin Khalji used the Banjaras.

→ Changing Society: New Castes and Hierarchies

  • As the society grew, people with new skills were required hence, smaller castes, or jatis, emerged within varnas.
  • Artisans such as smiths, carpenters and masons were also recognised as separate jatis by the Brahmanas. Jatis became the basis for organising society rather than varna.
  • New Rajput clans, the Kshatriyas became powerful by the eleventh and twelfth centuries. They belonged to different lineages such as Hunas, Chandelas, Chalukyas and some others. Among them, some had been tribes earlier. They moderately replaced the older rulers especially in agricultural areas.
  • The tribal people had to follow the Rajput clans to the position of rulers as they set an example for them.

→ A Closer Look The Gonds

  • The Gonds practised shifting cultivation as they lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana or “country inhabited by Gonds”.
  • The Akbar Nama reveals the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga that had 70,000 villages.
  • The kingdom was divided into garbs and each was controlled by a particular Gond clan. It was further divided into units of 84 villages called chaurasi. The chaurasi was again subdivided into barhots which were made up of 12 villages each.
  • The Gond raja of Garha Katanga Aman Das, assumed the title of Sangram Shah. His son, Dalpat, married princess Durgawati, the daughter of Salbahan, the Chandel Rajput raja of Mahoba.
  • She was very capable and brave and started ruling on behalf of her five-year old son, Bir Narain. In 1565, she was defeated by the Mughal forces under Asaf Khan and preferred to die than to surrender. Her son also died fighting after sometime.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 7 Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities

→ The Ahoms

  • In the thirteenth century, the Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar. They created a new system of the bhuiyans means landlords.
  • They used firearms in 1530s and by that the Ahoms built a large state. They could even make high quality gunpowder and cannons by the 1660s.
  • In 1662, the Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked the Ahom kingdom but they were defeated.
  • The state depended upon forced labour. Those who were forced to work for the state were called paiks.
    The new methods of rice cultivation was also introduced by Ahoms.
  • The society was divided into clans or khels. A khel often controlled several villages.
  • The Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods. During the reign of Sib Singh (1714-1744), Hinduism became the predominant religion. But they did not completely give up their traditional beliefs after adopting Hinduism.
  • The historical works known as buranjis were written first in the Ahom language and then in Assamese. It was a very sophisticated society. Theatre was encouraged a lot.

→ Conclusion:
This period saw more interaction between varna based society and the tribal groups. Few established extensive states with well- organised systems of administration hence, became politically powerful.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes