Bhagya

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Political Parties

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JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Political Parties

→ Why do we need political parties?

  • Political parties are one of the most easily visible institutions in a democracy.
  • Parties have become identified with social and political divisions.
  • About hundred years ago there were a few countries of the world that had any political party. Now, there are few that do not have parties.

→ Meaning

  • A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government.
  • They agree on some policies and programes for the society with a view to promote the collective good.
  • Parties reflect fundamental political divisions in a society. Parties are a part of the society and thus involve PARTNERSHIP.
  • A political party has three components:
    (a) The leaders,
    (b) The active members, and
    (c) The followers.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Political Parties

→ Functions
Political parties fill political offices and exercise political power. Parties do so by performing a series of functions:
(a) Parties contest elections. In most democracies, elections are fought mainly among the candidates put up by the political parties.
(b) Parties put forward different policies and programmes and the voters choose from them.
(c) Parties play a decisive role in making laws for a country. Formally, laws are debated and passed in the legislature.
(d) Parties form and run the government. As we noted last year, the big policy decisions are taken by the political executives that come from the political parties.
(e) Those parties that lose in the elections play the role of opposition to the parties in power, by voicing different views and criticizing the government for its failures or wrong policies.
(f) Parties shape public opinion. They raise and highlight issues. Parties have lakhs of members and activists spread all over the country.
(g) Parties provide people access to government machinery and welfare schemes implemented by the governments.

→ Necessity

  • We need political parties because they perform all these functions.
  • The rise of political parties is directly linked to the emergence of representative democracies.
  • As we have seen, large scale societies need representative democracies.
  • Political parties fulfil these needs that every representative government has.

→ How many parties should we have?

  • In a democracy, any group of citizens is free to form a political party.
  • There are a large number of political parties in each country.
  • More than 750 parties are registered with the Election Commission of India.
  • In some countries, only one party is allowed to control and run the government. These are called one-party system in China, only Communist Party is allowed to rule.
  • We cannot consider one party system as a good option because this is not a democratic option.
  • Any democratic system must allow at least two parties to compete in the election and provide a fair chance for the competing parties to come to the power.
  • In some countries, power usually changes between two main parties.
  • But only the two main parties have a bright chance of winning the majority of seats to form the government. Such a party system is called two-party system.
  • If several parties compete for power, and more than two parties have a reasonable chance of coming to power either on their own strength or in alliance with others, we call it multi-party system.
  • When several parties in a multi-party system join hands for the purpose of contesting elections and winning power, it is called an alliance or a front.
  • The multi-party system often appears very messy and leads to political instability.
  • This system allows a variety of interests and opihions to enjoy political representation.

→ National parties

  • Democracies that follow a federal system all over the world tend to have two kinds of-politicitl parties: parties that are present in only one of the federal units and parties that are present in several or all units of Federation.
  • Every party in the country has to register with the Election Commission. While the Election Commission treats all parties equally, it offers some special facilities to large and established parties.
  • Parties that get this privilege and special facilities are ‘recognised’ by the Election Commission are called, ‘recognised political parties’.
  • According to this classification, there were seven national recognised parties in the country in 2018. These are:
    (a) Indian National Congress
    (b) Bharatiya Janta Party
    (c) Bahujan Samaj Party
    (d) Communist Party of India-Marxist
    (e) Communist Party of India
    (f) Nationalist Congress Party
    (g) All India Trinamool Congress

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Political Parties

→ State party

  • Other than these seven parties, most of the major parties of the country are classified by the Election Commission as ‘State parties’.
  • Parties like
    (a) Samajwadi party,
    (b) Samata party and Rashtriya Janata Dal have national level political organization with units in several States.
  • Some of these parties like Biju Janata Dal, Sikkim Democratic Front and Mizo National Front and Telangana Rashtra Samithi are conscious of their State identity.
  • Over the last three decades, the number and strength of these parties has expanded.

→ Challenges to political parties

  • All over the world, people express strong dissatisfaction with the failure of political parties to perform their functions as well.
  • The first challenge is lack of internal democracy within parties. All over the world there is a tendency towards the concentration of power in one or few leaders at the top.
  • The leaders assume greater power to make decisions in the name of the party.
  • Since one or few leaders exercise paramount power in the party, those who disagree with the leadership find it difficult to continue in the party.
  • The second challenge of the dynastic ‘ succession is related to the first one. Since
    most political parties do not practise open and transparent procedures for their functioning, there are very few ways for an ordinary worker to rise to the top in a party.
  • The third challenge is about the growing role of money and muscle power in parties, especially during elections.
  • Rich people and companies who give funds to the parties tend to have influence on the policies and decisions of the parties.
  • In some cases, parties support criminals who can win elections.
  • The fourth challenge is that very often parties do not seem to offer a meaningful choice to the voters.

→ How can parties be reformed?
Let us look at some of the recent efforts and suggestions in our country to reform political parties and its leaders:
(a) The Constitution was amended to prevent elected MLAs and MPs from changing parties. This was done because many elected representatives were indulging in DEFECTION in order to become ministers or for cash rewards.
(b) The Supreme Court passed an order to reduce the influence of money and criminals.
(c) The Election Commission passed an . ordermaking it necessary for political parties to hold their organizational elections and file their income tax returns.

→ Besides these, many suggestions are often made to reform political parties:
(a) A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties. It should be made compulsory for political parties to maintain a register of its members.

(b) It should be made mandatory for political parties to give a minimum number of tickets, about one-third, to women candidates.

(c) There should be state funding of elections. The government should give parties money to support their election expenses.

  • These suggestions have not yet been accepted by political parties.
  • There are two other ways in which political parties can be reformed.
  • One people can put pressure on political parties. This can be done through petition, publicity, and agitation.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 5 Popular Struggles and Movements

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JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 5 Popular Struggles and Movements

→ Popular struggles in Nepal and Bolivia Movements for democracy in Nepal

  • Nepal witnessed an extraordinary popular movement in April 2006. The movement was aimed at restoring democracy.
  • The movement of April 2006 was aimed at retaining popular control over the government from the king.
  • All the major political parties in the parliament formed a Seven Party Alliance (SPA) and called for four-day strike in Kathmandu, the country’s capital.
  • The number of protesters reached between three to five lakhs on 21 April and they served an ultimatum to the king.
  • The leader of the movement rejected the half-hearted concessions made by the king.
  • They stuck to their demand for restoration of parliament, the power to an all party government and a new constituent assembly.
  • On 24 April 2004, the last day of the ultimatum; the king was forced to concede all the three demands.
  • The SPA chose Girija Prasad Koirala as the new Prime Minister of the interim government.
  • This struggle came to be known as Nepal’s second movement for democracy.

→ Bolivia Water War

  • Bolivia is a poor country in Latin America.
  • World Bank pressurized the government to give up the control of water supply. So, the government to sell the rights of water supply to M.N.C.
  • As soon as they get the right of water supply, they increased the price of water by four times.
  • This bought troubles in lives of common people and led to a popular protest.
  • In January 2000, an alliance of labour human rights organizations called for a four day strike in city. Hence, the government agreed to negotiate but nothing happened.
  • The agitation was started again in February and April, but the government tried to suppress the movement.
  • But the power of people forced the M.N.C. to flee the city and made the government to accept all the demands.
  • The contract with M.N.C. was cancelled and water supply was restored to Municipality.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 5 Popular Struggles and Movements

→ Democracy and popular struggles

  • What are differences between Bolivia and Nepal?
  • The movement in Nepal was to establish democracy but movement in Bolivia was against the policy of an elected democratic government.
  • The popular struggle in Bolivia was about one specific policy while the struggle in Nepal was about the foundation of country’s politics.

→ What are similarities between Bolivia and Nepal?

  • Both of these are instances of political conflicts that led to popular struggles.
  • In both cases, the struggle involved mass mobilization.
  • Public demonstration of mass support clinched the dispute.

→ Conclusion

  • Democracy evolves through popular struggles.
  • Democracy involves conflict between those who are in power and those who aspires for power.
  • Democratic conflicts are resolved through mass mobilization.
  • If the conflicts cannot be resolved by parliament the solution will come from people. ,
  • These conflicts and mobilization are based on new political organization.

→ Mobilization and organizations

  • The protest against water privatization in Bolivia was not led by any political party.
  • It was led by an organization called FEDECOR.
  • This organization comprised of local professionals, including engineers and environmentalists.
  • The movement was supported by the socialist party. In 200.6, this party came to power in Bolivia.
  • From both these examples, we can see that in a democracy several different kinds of organizations work behind any big struggle.
  • These organizations play their role in two ways:
    • One-way of influencing the decisions in a democracy is direct participation in competitive politics.
    • There are many indirect ways in which people can get governments to listen to their demands or their points of view.

→ Pressure groups and movements

  • Pressure groups are organizations that attempt to influence government policies.
  • These organizations are formed when people with common occupation, interest, aspirations or opinions come together in order to achieve a common objective.

→ Sectional interest groups and public interest groups

  • Interest groups seek to promote the interests of a particular section or group of society.
  • Their principal concern is the betterment and well-being of their members, not society in general.
  • Sometimes these organizations are not about representing the interest of one section of society. They represent some common or general interest that needs to be defined. These type of groups are called promotional groups or public interest groups.
  • They promote collective rather than selective goods. They aim to help groups other than their own members.

→ Movement groups

  • As in the case of interest groups, the groups involved with movements include a very wide variety.
  • Most of the movements are issues specific movements that seek to achieve a single objective within a limited time frame.
  • The movement started with the specific issues of the people displaced by the creation of Sardar Sarovar dam on the Narmada River. Its objective was to stop the dam from being constructed.
  • These single-issue movements can be contrasted with movements that are long terms and involve more than one issue.
  • Pressure groups and movements exert influence on politics in a variety of ways:
    • They try to gain public support and sympathy for their goals and their activity by carrying out information
      campaigns, organizing meetings, file petition, etc.
    • They often organize protest activity like strikes or disrupting government programs.
    • Business groups often employ professional lobbyists or sponsors expensive advertisements.
    • In some instances, the pressure groups are either formed or led by the leaders of political parties or act as extended arms of political parties.
    • Sometimes political parties grow out of movements.
    • In most cases, the relationship between parties and interest or movement groups is not so direct.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 5 Popular Struggles and Movements

→ Is their influeqce healthy?

  • It may initially appear that it is not healthy for groups that promote the interest of one section to have influence in democracy.
  • It may seem that these groups wield power without responsibility.
  • Pressure groups and movements may not get their funds and support from the people.
  • Putting pressure on the rulers is not unhealthy activity in a democracy as long as everyone gets this opportunity.
  • Public interest groups and movements perform a useful role in countering this useful role or countering this undue influence and reminding the government of the needs and concerns of ordinary citizens.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 4 Gender Religion and Caste

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JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 4 Gender Religion and Caste

→ Gender and Politics Public/private divisions

  • Boys and girls are brought up to believe that the main responsibility of women is housework and bringing up children.
  • This is reflected in a SEXUAL DIVISIONS OF LABOUR in most families: women do all work inside the home.
  • When jobs are paid for, men are ready to take up works live. Most tailors or cooks in hotels are men.
  • In urban areas, poor women work as a domestic helper in middle-class homes, while middle-class women work in offices.
  • The result of this division of labour is that although women constitute half of the humanity, their role in public life, especially politics, is minimal in most societies.
  • Women in different parts of the world organised and agitated for equal rights.
  • More radical women’s movements aimed at equality in personal and family life as well. These movements are called FEMINIST movements.
  • We now find women working as scientists, doctors,-.engineers, lawyers, managers and college and university teachers which were earlier not considered suitable for women.
  • In Scandinavian countries such as Sweden, Norway and Finland, the participation of women in public life is very high.
  • In our country, women still lag much behind men despite some improvement since independence.
    Ours is still a male-dominated, PATRIARCHAL society.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 4 Gender Religion and Caste

→ Women face disadvantage, discrimination and oppression in various ways

  • The literacy rate among women is only 54% compared with 76% of men.
  • On an average an Indian woman works one hour more than an average man every day. Yet much of her work is not paid and therefore often not valued.
  • In almost all areas of work, from sports and cinema to factories and fields, women are paid less than men, even when both do exactly the same work.
  • In many parts of India, parents prefer to have sons and find ways to have the girl child aborted before she is bom.
  • Urban areas have become unsafe for women.
  • They are not safe even within their own home from beating, harassment and other forms of domestic-violence.

→ Women’s political representation

  • Yet issues related to women’s well-being or otherwise are not given adequate attention.
  • One way to ensure this is to have more women as elected representatives.
  • In India, the proportion of women in the legislature has been very low.
  • The percentage of elected women members in Lok Sabha has never reached even 10% of its total strength.
  • In the government, cabinets are largely all male even when a woman becomes the Chief Minister or the Prime Minister.
  • One way to solve this problem is to make it legally binding to have a fair proportion of women in the elected bodies. This is what the Panchayati Raj has done in India.
  • There is more than 10 lakh elected women representatives in rural and urban local bodies.
  • Women’s organizations and activists have been demanding a similar reservation of at least one-third of seats in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for women.
  • A bill with proposal has been pending before the Parliament for more than a decade.
  • Gender division is an example of some form of social division needs to be expressed in politics. ,

→ Religion, communalism and politics

  • The division based on religious differences:
  • Many countries including India have in their population, followers of different religions. Consider the following:
    • Gandhiji used to say that religion can never be separated from politics. He meant politics must be guided by ethics drawn from religion.
    • Human rights groups in our country have argued that most of the victims of communal riots in our country are people from religious minorities.
    • Women’s movement has argued that FAMILY LAWS of all religions discriminate against women.

→ Communalism

  • The problem begins when religion is seen as the basis of the nation.
  • Communal politics is based on the ideas that religion is the principal basis of a social community.

→ Communalism can take various forms in politics

  • The most common expression of communalism is in everyday beliefs.
  • A communal mind often leads to a quest for political dominance of one’s own religious community.
  • Political mobilization on religious lines is another frequent form of communalism.
  • Sometimes communalism takes its most ugly form of communal violence, riots and massacre.
  • Communalism was and continues to be one of the major challenges to democracy in our country.
  • There is no official religion for the Indian state. The constitution provide freedom to profess any religion and prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 4 Gender Religion and Caste

→ Caste and politics
We have seen two instances of the expression of social divisions in the arena of politics, one largely positive and the other largely negative.

→ Caste inequalities

  • Unlike gender and religion, caste division is special to India.
  • In most societies, occupations are passed on from one generation to another.
  • Caste system was based on the exclusion and discrimination against the ‘outcaste’ groups.
  • Partly due to efforts of social reformers and partly due to other socio-economic changes, castes and the caste system in modem India have undergone great changes.
  • Large scale URBANISATION, the growth of literacy and education, OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY and old notions of CASTE HIERARCHY are breaking down.
  • Now, in urban areas it does not matter much who is walking along the next to us on a street or eating at the next table in a restaurant.
  • Yet caste has not disappeared from contemporary India. Some of the older aspects of caste have persisted.
  • Effects of centuries of advantages and disadvantages continue to be felt today.

→ Caste in politics

  • As in the case of communalism, casteism is rooted in the belief that caste is the sole basis of social community.
  • Caste is one aspect of our experience but it is not the only relevant or the most important aspect.

→ Caste can take various forms in politics

  • When governments are formed, political parties usually take care that representatives of different castes and tribes find a place in it.
  • Thus, it is not politics that gets caste-ridden; it is the caste that gets politicized.

→ This takes several forms

  • Each group tries to become bigger by incorporating within it neighbouring castes or sub-castes which were earlier excluded from it.
  • Various caste groups are required to enter into a dialogue and negotiation.
  • New kinds of caste groups have come up in the political arena like ‘backward’ and ‘forward’ caste group.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 3 Democracy and Diversity

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JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 3 Democracy and Diversity

→ A Story from Mexico Olympics

  • The story depicts an important landmark in the history of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States.
  • The two men standing with clenched fists upraised and head bowed are the US athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos.
  • The International Olympics Association held Carlos and Smith guilty of violating the Olympic spirit by making a political statement.
  • Their medals were taken back.
  • Back home, they were subjected to a lot of criticism, even Peter Norman, who wore a badge of the Olympic Project for Human Rights in support of Tommie Smith and John Carlos had also suffered a lot, he was not included in the 1972 summer Olympics.
  • But their action gained attention for the Civil Rights Movements in the US.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 3 Democracy and Diversity

→ Differences, Similarities, Divisions

  • The athletes above were responding to social divisions and social inequalities.
  • Social diversity can take different forms in different societies.

→ Origins of Social Differences
These social differences are mostly based on an accident of birth.

  • We don’t choose to belong to our community.
  • But all kinds of social differences are not based on our birth.
  • Some of the differences are based on our choices.
  • For example, some people are atheists. They don’t believe in God or any religion.
  • Every social difference does not lead to social divisions.
  • In the instances above, Carlos and Smith were similar in one way and thus different from Norman who was White.
  • But they where also all similar in another way – they were all athletes who stood against racial discrimination.
  • We all have more than one identity and can belong to more than one social group.
  • We have different identities in different contexts.

→ Overlapping and Cross-Cutting Differences

  • Social division takes place when some social differences overlap with other differences.
  • In the US, the Blacks tend to be the poor, homeless and are discriminated against.
  • In our country, Dalits tend to be the poor and landless.
  • They often face discrimination and injustice.
  • The group that shares a common interest on one issue is likely to be in different issues.
  • Overlapping social differences create possibilities of deep social divisions and tensions.
  • Cross-cutting social differences are easier to accommodate.

→ Politics of Social Divisions

  • At first sight, it would appear that the combination of politics and social divisions is very dangerous and explosive.
  • Political parties can make social divisions into political divisions and lead to conflict, violence or even disintegration of a country.
  • This has happened in many countries.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 3 Democracy and Diversity

→ Range of Outcomes

  • Northern Ireland of the United Kingdom has been for many years the site of a violent and bitter ethno-political conflicts.
  • Such examples lead some people to conclude that politics and social divisions must not be allowed to mix.
  • But if social divisions do exist in a country, they must never be expressed in politics.
  • At the same time every expression of social divisions in politics does not lead to such disasters.
  • In a democracy, it is. only natural that political parties would talk about these divisions, make different promises to different communities.
  • Social divisions affect voting in most countries.
  • In many countries, there are parties that focus only on one community.

→ Three Determinants

  • Three factors are crucial in deciding the outcome of politics of social divisions.
    (a) Outcome depends on how people perceive their identities.
    (b) It depends on how political leaders raise the demands of any community.
    (c) It depends on how the government reacts to demands of different groups.
  • Thus the assertion of social diversities in a country need not be seen as a source of danger.
  • Expression of various kinds of social divisions in politics often results in their cancelling one another out and thus reducing their intensity.
  • People who feel marginalised, deprived and discriminated have to fight against the injustices.
  • Sometimes social differences can take the form of unacceptable level of social inequality and injustice.
  • History shows that democracy is the best way to fight for recognition and also to accommodate diversity.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 2 Federalism

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JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 2 Federalism

→ Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.

  • A federation has two levels of government. One is the government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few subjects of common national interest.
  • The other level includes the governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the day-to-day administering of their states.
  • Both these levels of governments enjoy their power independent of the other.

→ Key features of federalism:
(a) There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government.
(b) Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own JURISDICTION in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
(c) The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution. So the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
(d) The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both levels of government.
(e) Courts have the local power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers.
(f) Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
(g) The federal system thus has dual objectives: to safeguard and promote unity of the country, while at the same time accommodate regional diversity.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 2 Federalism

→ Types of Federation:

  • Coming Together Federations: Independent states come together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignty and retaining identity they can increase their security, e.g., the USA, Switzerland, and Australia. All the constituent States usually have equal powers vis-a-vis the federal government.
  • Holding Together Federations: A large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national government. Very often, different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers. Some units are granted special powers.
    Federalism in India

→ The Indian Union is based on the principles of federalism. The Constitution has clearly provided a threefold distribution of legislative powers between the Union government and the State governments.
Thus, it contains three lists:
(a) Union List includes subjects of national importance such as defence of the country, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency. They are included in this list because we need a uniform policy on these matters throughout the country. The Union government alone can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the Union List.

(b) State List contains subjects of State and local importance such as police, trade, commerce, agriculture and irrigation. The State governments alone can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the State List.

(c) Concurrent List includes subjects of common interest to both Union government and State governments, such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession. Both Union and State governments can make laws on the subjects mentioned in this list. If their laws conflict with each other, the law made by the Union government will prevail.

(d) The Union government has the power to make laws for the subjects that are not included in any of the three lists. These are termed as ‘residuary subjects’.

  • All States in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. Some States enjoy a special status. Many provisions of the Indian Constitutioh are not applicable to some states without the approval of the State Assembly. Special provisions exist for Assam and the hill states of North-East India.
  • Union Territories do not have the powers of a State. The Central government has special powers of governing the Union Territories.
  • The power sharing arrangement provided by the Constitution is difficult to change.
  • Any change to it has to be first passed by both Houses of Parliament with at least two- thirds majority. Then it has to be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total States.

→ Role of Judiciary:

  • It plays an important role in overseeing the implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures. In case of any dispute between the Centre and the States regarding the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court have the right of adjudication.
  • The Union and the State governments have the power to raise resources by levying taxes in order to carry on the government and the responsibilities assigned to each of them.

→ Linguistic States

  • New States were created on linguistic basis in 1947 for recognizing the linguistic and cultural differences of various parts of the country.
  • The formation of linguistic States has united the country and has made administration easier.

→ Language Policy

  • Hindi was identified as the official language. But Hindi is the mother tongue of only about 40 per cent of Indians. Therefore, there were many safeguards to protect other languages. Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognised as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution.
  • Examinations for the Central government posts may be taken by the candidates in any of the scheduled languages.
  • Each State has its own official language.
  • According to the Constitution, English as an official language was supposed to be discontinued in 1965. However, due to opposition by non-Hindi speaking States, both English and Hindi are being continued for official purposes.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 2 Federalism

→ Centre-State Relations

  • The Central government in India has the power to dissolve any State government on the grounds of inefficiency and impose the 1 President’s rule in that State.
  • Before 1990, the Central government often misused the Constitution to dismiss the State governments that were controlled by the rival parties.
  • After 1990, the era of coalition governments at the Centre started. The major National Parties had to enter into alliances with many regional parties to form the government.
    This led to a new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of State Governments.

→ Decentralisation in India

  • When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local government, it is called decentralisation. The basic idea behind decentralisation is to solve a large number of problems and issues at the local level.
  • People have better knowledge of problems in their localities. They also have better ideas on where to spend money and how to manage things more efficiently.
  • Besides, at the local level it is possible for the people to directly participate in decision making. This helps to inculcate a habit of democratic participation. Local government is the best way to realise one important principle of democracy, viz., local self-government.
  • A major step towards decentralization was taken in 1992. The Constitution was amended to make the third-tier of democracy more powerful and effective.
  • Now it’s constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.
  • Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and the executive heads of these institutions for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
  • At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
  • An independent institution called the State Election Commission has been created in each State to conduct panchayat and municipal elections.
  • The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local government bodies. The nature of sharing varies from State to State.

→ Rural local government is popularly known by the name Panchayati Raj. Each village, or a group of villages in some States, has a Gram Panchayat. This is a council consisting of several ward members, often called Panch, and a President or Sarpanch. They are directly elected by all the adult population living in that ward or village. It is the decision-making body for the entire village.

  • The Panchayat works under the overall supervision of the Gram Sabha. All the voters in the village are its members. It has to meet at least twice or thrice in a year to approve the annual budget of the Gram Panchayat and to review its performance. The local government structure goes right up to the district level. A few Gram Panchayats are grouped together to form what is usually called a Panchayat Samiti or Block or Mandal. The members of this representative body are elected by all the Panchayat members in that area.
  • All the Panchayat Samitis or Mandals in a district together constitute the Zilla (district) Parishad. Most members of the Zilla Parishad are elected. Members of the Lok Sabha and MLAs of that district and some other officials of other district level bodies are also its members.
  • Zilla Parishad chairperson is the political head of the Zilla Parishad. Local government bodies exist for urban areas as well. Municipalities are set up in towns. Big cities are constituted into municipal corporations.
  • Both municipalities and municipal corporations are controlled by the elected bodies consisting of people’s representatives.
  • Municipal chairperson is the political head of the municipality. In a municipal corporation such an officer is called Mayor.
  • Constitutional status for local government has helped to deepen democracy in our country.
  • Most State governments have not transferred significant powers to the local governments. Nor have they given adequate resources. We are thus still a long way from realising the ideal of self-government.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 1 Power Sharing

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JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 1 Power Sharing

→ Through the case studies of Belgium and Sri Lanka, the chapter explains the importance of power sharing in a democracy.

→ Belgium and Sri Lanka

  • Belgium is a small country in Europe, smaller in area than the state of Haryana in India. It shares its borders with France, the Netherlands, Germany and Luxembourg. It has a population over one crore.
  • Ethnic composition of this country is very complex. The minority French speaking people was relatively rich and powerful. This was resented by the Dutch-speaking community who got the benefit of economic development much later. Tensions between the two communities arose between the 1950s and 1960s. Tensions were more acute in Brussels as the Dutch-speaking were a majority in the country but a minority in the capital.
  • Sri Lanka has a diverse population. The major social groups are Sinhala speakers (74%) and Tamil speakers (18%). There are LVo sub-groups of Tamils—Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Tamils. Most of the Sinhala-speaking people are Buddhists, while most of the Tamils are either Hindus or Muslims. There are about 7 per cent Christians, who are both Tamil and Sinhala.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 1 Power Sharing

→ Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

  • Sri Lanka emerged as an independent country in 1948. The democratically elected government adopted a series of majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
  • An Act was passed in 1956 to recognise Sinhala as the only official language, disregarding Tamil. The government followed preferential policies that favoured Sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs. A new constitution stipulated that the State shall protect and foster Buddhism.
  • There was an increased feeling of alienation among the Tamils as they were discriminated and denied every opportunity. Also, their demands and interests were ignored and refused.
  • The Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles. They demanded an independent Tamil Eelam (state) in northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
  • The distrust between the two communities turned into widespread conflict and then into a civil war. It caused a terrible setback to the social, cultural and economic life of the country. It ended in 2009.

→ Accommodation in Belgium:
The Belgian leaders recognised the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities. Between 1970 and 1993, they amended their constitution four times so as to work out an arrangement that would enable everyone to live together within the same country.

→ The Belgian model has following elements:
Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be equal in the central government; the state governments are not subordinate to the Central Government; Brussels has a separate government in which both the communities have equal representation. It has a third kind of government called the ‘community government’, which has the power regarding cultural, educational and language-related issues.

→ Why power sharing is desirable?
There are two reasons why power sharing is desirable:

  • Prudential reason: Power sharing reduces the possibility of conflict between social groups. It ensures the stability of political order.
  • Moral reason: Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy. A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 1 Power Sharing

→ Forms of power-sharing:

  • In modem democracies, power sharing arrangements can take many forms’.
  • Power is shared among different organs of the government, such as the legislature, executive and the judiciary. This is known as horizontal distribution of power. Each organ exercises a different power. This ensures that none of the organs exercises unlimited power. Each organ checks the other. This arrangement is called a system of checks and balances.
  • Power can be shared among governments at different levels. A general government for the entire country and governments at the provincial or regional level. This is known as vertical distribution of power. In India, the general government is the Central or Union
    government and the regional government refers to the State governments. Lower than State government is the municipality and panchayat.
  • Power can be shared among different social groups, such as the religious and linguistic groups. For example, the ‘community government’ in Belgium. India has ‘reserved constituencies’ in assemblies and the parliament.
  • Power is also shared among various political parties, pressure and interest groups, etc. For example, when two or more parties come together to form a coalition government, power is shared. Similarly, industrialists, farmers, traders and businessmen form interest groups and play an active role in the functioning of the government.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 7 Lifelines of National Economy

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JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 7 Lifelines of National Economy

→ Modem means of transport and communication serve as iife lines of our nation and its modem economy.

→ Means of transportation can be divided into Roadways, Railways, Waterways, Airways and Pipelines.

→ Roadways: India has one of the largest road networks in the world, aggregating to about 54.7 lakh km at present.

→ The growing importance of road transport vis-a-vis rail transport is rooted in the following reasons:
(a) Constmction cost of roads is much lower than railway lines.
(b) Roads can traverse dissect on undulating topography.
(c) Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and can traverse mountains such as the Himalayas.
(d) Road transport is economical in transportation of few persons and small amount of goods over short distances.
(e) It also provides door-to-door service, thus the cost of loading and unloading is much lower.
(f) Road transport is also used as a feeder to other modes of transport, such as, they provide a link between railway stations, air and sea ports.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 7 Lifelines of National Economy

→ In India, roads are classified into following six classes:

→ Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways:
The government has launched a major road development project linking Delhi-Kolkata- Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by six-lane Super Highways. The North-South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu), and East-West Corridor connecting Silchar (Assam) and Porbandar (Gujarat) are part of this project. National Highways: National Highways link extreme parts of the country. These are the primary road systems and are laid and maintained by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD).

→ State Highways:
Roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters are known as State Highways. These roads are constructed and maintained by the State Public Works Department (PWD) in State and Union Territories.

→ District Roads:
These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the district. These roads are maintained by the Zila Parishad.

→ Other Roads:
Rural roads, link rural areas and villages with towns. These roads received special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana.

→ Border Roads:
Border Roads Organisation, a Government of India undertaking constructs and maintains roads in the bordering areas of the country.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 7 Lifelines of National Economy

→ Railways:

  • Railways are the principal modes of transportation for freight and passengers in India.
  • Railways bind the economic life as well as accelerate the development of industry and agriculture.
  • The distribution pattern of the Railway network in the country has been largely influenced by the physiographic, economic and administrative factors. The northern , plains with their vast level land, high population density and rich agricultural resources provided the most favourable condition for their growth.
  • It was difficult to lay railway tracks on sandy areas, etc.
  • Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on the transportation map of India. In the past, these were used to transport water to cities and industries. Now, these are used for transporting crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas from oil and natural gas fields to refineries, fertilizer factories and big thermal power plants.

→ Waterways: Waterways are the cheapest means of transport. They are most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods. It is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly mode of transport.

  • India has inland navigation waterways of 14,500 km in length. Out of these only 5685 km are navigable by mechanised vessels,
  • Kandla in Kachchh was the first port developed soon after Independence to ease j the volume of trade on the Mumbai port, in the wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan after the partition. Kandla is a tidal port.
  • Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour.

→ Airways :

  • The air travel, today, is the fastest, most comfortable and prestigious mode of transport. It can cover very difficult terrains like high mountains, dreary deserts, dense forests aiid also long oceanic stretches with great ease.
  • The air transport was nationalised in 1953. Air India provides domestic and , international air services. Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd. provides helicopter services to oil and Natural Gas Corporation in its off-shore operations, to inaccessible areas and difficult terrains like the north-eastern states and the interior parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.

→ Communication:

  • Long distance communication is far easier without physical movement of the communicator or receiver. Personal communication and mass communication including television, radio, press, films, etc., are the major means of communication in the country. The Indian postal network is the largest in the world.
  • India has one of the largest telecom networks in Asia. Apart from the urban places, more than two-thirds of the villages in India have already been covered with Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD) telephone facility.

→ Mass Communication: Mass communication provides entertainment and creates awareness among people about various national programmes and policies. It includes radio, television, newspapers, magazines, books and films. All India Radio (Akashwani) broadcasts a variety of programmes in national, regional and local languages for various categories of people, spread over different parts of the country. Doordarshan, the national television channel of India, is one of the largest terrestrial networks in the world. It broadcasts a variety of programmes from entertainment, educational to sports, etc. for the people of different age groups.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 7 Lifelines of National Economy

→ International Trade: Trade is the exchange of goods among people, states and countries. The market is the place where such exchanges take place. Trade between two countries is called international trade. It may take place through sea, air or land routes. While local trade is carried in cities, towns and villages, state level trade is carried between two or more states.

  • Export and import are the components of trade. The balance of trade of a country is the difference between its export and import. India has trade relations with all the major trading blocks and all geographical regions of the world.
  • Tourism as a Trade: Tourism in India has grown substantially over the last three decades. More than 15 million people are directly engaged in the tourism industry.
  • Foreign tourists visit India for heritage, eco, adventure, cultural, medical and business tourism.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Manufacturing Industries

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JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Manufacturing Industries

→ Manufacturing is production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials to more valuable products.

  • It is a secondary activity.
  • The economic strength of a country is measured by the development of manufacturing industries.

→ Importance of Manufacturing

  • Manufacturing is considered the backbone of development in general and economic development in particular.
  • Manufacturing industries help in modernising agriculture and reduce the dependence of people on agricultural income by engaging them in secondary and tertiary activities.
  • Industrial development gives a boost to the economy and reduces unemployment.
  • There is trade with other countries and export brings in foreign exchange.
  • Raw materials can be converted into a variety of finished products.
  • Development and competitiveness of manufacturing industries assists agriculturists in increasing their income. This also makes production processes very efficient.

→ Contribution of Industry to National Economy
Over the last two decades, the contribution of rnaìufacturing in GDP has been low as compared to some East Asian economies.

  • With appropriate policy interventions by the government and renewed efforts by the industry to improve productivity, economists predict that manufacturing can achieve the target over the next decade.
  • The National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council (NMCC) has been set up with this objective.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Manufacturing Industries

→ Industrial Location

  • Industrial locations are influenced by the availability of raw materials, labour, capital, power, market, least cost, government policies and specialised labour.
  • Many industries come together to make the use of the advantages offered by the urban centres (financial advice, banking, insurance, transport, labour, consultants, etc.). These are known as agglomeration economies. Gradually, a large industrial agglomeration takes place.
  • In pre-Independence India, industries were strategically located from where overseas trade was possible.

→ Classification of Industries

  • On the basis of source of raw materials used, industries are classified as agro-based and mineral-based.
  • On the basis of their main role, industries are classified as basic or key industries and consumer industries.

→ Contribution of Industry to National Economy

  • Over the last two decades, the contribution of manufacturing in GDP has been low as compared to some East Asian economies.
  • On the basis of capital investment, industries can be small-scale or large-scale.
  • On the basis of ownership, industries can be in public sector, private sector, joint sector or cooperative sector.
  • On the basis of bulk and weight of raw material and finished goods, it can be a heavy industry or a light industry.

→ Agro-based Industries

  • Agro-based industries include cotton, jute, woollen textiles, sugar and edible oil, etc.
  • These industries are based on agricultural raw materials.
  • The textile industry contributes significantly to industrial production.

→ Cotton textiles: This industry has close links with agriculture as it provides a living to farmers, cotton boll pluckers and workers engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and sewing. It supports other industries, such as chemicals and dyes, mill stores, packaging materials and engineering works. The handspun khadi provides large-scale employment to weavers in their homes as a cottage industry. India exports yam to Japan, and exports cotton goods to USA, UK, Russia, France, Sri Lanka and African countries.

→ Jute textiles: India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods. It stands at a second place as an exporter after Bangladesh. Most mills are located along Hugli basin, West Bengal.

→ Sugar industry: India stands second as a world producer of sugar but occupies the first place in production of gur and khandsari. In recent years, there has been a tendency for the’ sugar mills to shift and concentrate in west and south India, especially Maharashtra as sugarcane has higher sucrose content and longer crushing season.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Manufacturing Industries

→ Mineral-based Industries:
Industries that use minerals and metals as raw materials are called mineral based industries.

→ Iron and steel industry:
It is a basic industry as all other industries depend on it for their machinery. Steel is required to manufacture a variety of engineering goods, construction material, defence, medical, scientific equipment, etc. There are mini steel plants and integrated steel plants. Steel plants are concentrated in Chota Nagpur Plateau region. Liberalisation, Foreign Direct Investment and private entrepreneurs have given a boost to this industry.

→ Aluminium smelting:
It is the second most important metallurgical industry in India. These plants are located in Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. A very heavy raw material, viz., bauxite is used in the smelters. It is used as a substitute of steel, copper, zinc and lead in many industries.

→ Chemical industry:
This industry in India is fast growing and diversifying. Rapid growth has been recorded in both organic and inorganic sectors. It comprises both large and small scale manufacturing units. Inorganic chemical units are located all over the country. Organic chemical plants are located near oil refineries and petrochemical plants.

→ Fertiliser industry:
is centred around the production of nitrogenous fertilizers (Urea) and combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P) and potash (K). This industry is located in Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Assam, etc.

→ Cement industry:
It is required for building houses, factories, bridges, roads, airports, dams and for other commercial establishments. It requires bulky raw materials, power supply and coal. They are located in Gujarat that has suitable access to the market in the Gulf countries.

→ Automobile industry:
It provides vehicles for quick transport of goods and passengers. With liberalisation new and contemporary models increased the demand for vehicles in the market. This industry is located in Delhi, Gurugram, Mumbai, Lucknow, Indore, Bengaluru, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Hyderabad and Jamshedpur.

→ Information Technology and Electronics Industry:
Bengaluru has emerged as the electronic capital of India. Other centres are at Noida, Mumbai, Chennai, Hyderabad and Pune. A major impact has been on employment generation. The growth in hardware and software is the key to success of IT in India

→ Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation

  • Industries are responsible for air, water, land and noise pollution. Increase in industrialisation has led to degradation of environment which has serious long-term effects on plant, animal and human life.
  • Several toxic gases are released into the atmosphere through the factory chimneys. The wastes are discharged into water bodies, polluting the rivers and ponds and poisoning the underground water. Noise pollution has psychological effects too.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Manufacturing Industries

→ Control of Environmental Degradation

  • Water should be reused and recycled for minimising the use of water for processing.
  • Rainwater harvesting should be practised to use water efficiently.
  • Hot water and effluents should be treated before being discharged into any water bodies.
  • Smoke filters, fabric filters, scrubbers and inertial separators should be used to capture the dust apd reduce it. Silencers should be used to reduce noise levels.
  • NTPC has adopted a pro-active approach for preserving the natural environment and resources like water, oil, gas and fuels in the places.where it is setting up power plants.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

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JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

→ Minerals are an indispensable part of our lives.

  • They are homogeneous, a naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure.
  • Minerals are obtained from rocks.
  • Certain rocks contain only one mineral while
  • some other rocks contain many minerals.
  • They vary in colour, lustre, density, and hardness.
  • Minerals occur in igneous and metamorphic rocks in cracks, crevices, and joints.
  • The smaller occurrence is called veins and the larger occurrence is called lodes.
  • In sedimentary rocks, minerals occur in layers or beds, e.g., gypsum and potash.
  • Certain minerals occur by the decomposition of surface rocks, e.g., bauxite.
  • Some minerals involve alluvial deposits. These deposits are called placer deposits which are not corroded by water, e.g., gold, silver, etc.
  • Ocean waters contain a vast quantity of minerals e.g., common salt, magnesium, etc.

→ Distribution of Mineral Resources in India

  • India is fortunate to have plenty of minerals but they are unevenly distributed.
  • Peninsular rocks contain reserves of coal, metallic minerals, mica, etc.
  • Sedimentary rocks in western and eastern coasts, Assam and Gujarat have petroleum deposits.
  • Rock system in Rajasthan has non-ferrous minerals.
  • The alluvial plains are devoid of economic minerals.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

→ Ferrous Minerals
Ferrous minerals account for about three- fourths of the total value of the production of metallic minerals. They provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries.

→ Iron Ore

  • It is the basic mineral and the backbone of industrial development.
  • Magnetite is the finest iron ore with 70% iron content. Magnetite has magnetic qualities.
  • Haematite is the most important industrial ore in terms of quantity used. It has 50%- 60% iron content.

→ Major Iron Ore Beits in India

  • Odisha-Jharkhand Belt: High-grade haematite is found in the Badampahar mines in Odisha, Singhbhum district in Jharkhand.
  • Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt (Lies in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra): 14 deposits of super high-grade haematite is found. It is exported to Japan and South- Korea.
  • Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru- Tumakuru Belt: It lies in Karnataka. Kudremukh mines are 100% export unit.
  • Maharashtra-Goa Belt (Lies in Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra): Though the ores are not of good quality, they are exported through Marmagao port.

→ Manganese:

  • It is used in manufacturing steel.
  • 10 kg of manganese is required to manufacture 1 tonne of steel. Madhya Pradesh (27%) is the largest producer of manganese in India.

→ Non-Ferrous Minerals
Important non-ferrous minerals are: copper, lead, zinc, etc.

→ Copper
India is deficient in the production of copper. They are malleable, ductile and good conductor; used in electrical appliances, electronic and chemical industries. Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan are leading producers.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

→ Bauxite
Aluminium is obtained from bauxite. Bauxite is strong like iron with extreme lightness. It is malleable and good conductor. 49% of bauxite is produced in Odisha.

→ Non-Metallic Minerals
Mica

  • It splits easily into thin sheets.
  • It is an indispensable mineral used in electric and electronic industries due to its dielectric strength, low power loss factor and resistance , to high voltage.

→ Limestone

  • It is found in sedimentary rocks,’composed in calcium and magnesium carbonates.
  • It is the basic low material for cement industries and essential for iron ore in the refineries.

→ Conservation of Minerals

  • Industry and agriculture are strongly dependent on minerals.
  • The process of mineral formation is very slow in comparison to its present consumption.
  • They are ,finite and non-renewable.
  • Continued extraction from greater depth leads to increasing costs and decreases in quality.
  • Improved technologies need to be evolved to lower the costs.
  • Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other substances are the steps to consume the minerals for the future.

→ Energy Resources

  • Energy is required for all the activities, i.e., to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel vehicles and to drive machinery. Energy resources are of two types:
  • Conventional Resources: Include firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity.
    Non-conventional Resources: Include solar, the wind, tidal, geothermal, bio-gas and atomic energy.

→ Coal
Used for power generation, to supply energy to industry and domestic need.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

→ Types of Coal

  • Peat: Decaying plants in swamps produce peat. It has low carbon, high moisture, and low heating capacity.
  • Lignite: It is a low grade brown coal.
    Neyveli in Tamil Nadu has great reserves of lignite. This is also used for generation of electricity.
  • Bituminous: It is buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures. Most popular coal in commercial use.
  • Anthracite: It is the highest quality hard coal.
  • Coal occurs in rock series of 2 main geological ages- Gondwana and Tertiary.

→ Petroleum

  • It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for industries.
  • Most of the petroleum occurrences are of tertiary age.
  • Mumbai, Gujarat and Assam are major petroleum-producing states in India.
  • Assam is the oldest oil producing state in India.

→ Natural Gas

  • Natural gas is found in association with or without petroleum.
  • It is an environment-friendly fuel because of the low carbon dioxide emission.
  • Large reserves are found in the Krishna- Godavari basin.
  • The 1700 km long Hazira-Vijaypur- Jagdishpur cross-country gas pipeline links Mumbai High and Bassien.

→ Electricity

  • Per capita consumption of electricity is considered as an index of development.
  • It is generated in two ways: Hydro electricity and Thermal electricity.

→ Hydro Electricity:
It is generated by fast flowing water. It is a renewable fuel. In India, there are many multi-projects like Bhakra Nangal, Kopili, Hydel project, etc. Thermal Electricity: It is generated by using coal, petroleum and natural gas. It is a non-renewable fossil fuel.

→ Importance of Non-Conventional Source of Energy

  • Growing consumption of energy resulted in the over dependent on fossil fuels, like coal, petroleum, etc.
  • Rising prices of oil and gas have raised uncertainties about the supply in future.
  • Increasing use of fossil fuels results in the environmental problems.
  • Therefore, there is a pressing need to use renewable resources like solar, wind, tidal energy, etc

→ Nuclear/Atomic Energy

  • It is obtained by altering the structure of atoms.
  • Uranium and Thorium are used for generating electricity.
  • Monazite sands of Kerala are rich in thorium.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

→ Solar Energy

  • Since India is a tropical country, there are enormous possibilities of tapping solar energy.
  • Photovoltaic technology directly converts sunlight into electricity.
  • It will minimize the use of firewood and dung cakes in rural areas.

→ Wind Power
The largest wind farm cluster is located in TamilNadu, between Nagercoil and Madurai.

→ Bio-Gas

  • Shrubs, fast waste animal, and human waste are used to produce bio-gas for domestic use in rural areas.
  • It has higher thermal efficiency.
  • The plants using cattle dung are called ‘Gobar Gas Plants’.
  • It has two benefits: Providing energy for electricity and providing manure.

→ Tidal Energy

  • Oceanic tides are used to generate electricity.
  • Gulf of kachchh in Gujarat, Gulf of Khambhat provide tidal energy.

→ Geothermal Energy

  • Heat and electricity is produced by using the heat from the interior of the Earth.
  • Ground water absorbs the heat from the rocks and becomes hot.
  • There are hundreds of hot springs in India.
  • Two experimental projects have been set up-one in Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) and the other in Puga valley (Ladakh).

→ Importance of Conservation of Energy Resources

  • Energy is a basic requirement for economic development.
  • Every sector of the national economy, i.e., agriculture, industry, domestic, etc. needs inputs of energy.
  • Consumption of energy has been increasing since independence.
  • Energy conservations and use of renewable energy are the two features of sustainable energy.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 4 Agriculture

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JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 4 Agriculture

→ Two-thirds of the population of India are engaged in agricultural activities.

  • Agriculture is a primary activity, which produces most of the food that we consume.
  • It produces foodgrains and raw material for various industries.
  • Few agricultural products like tea, coffee, spices, etc. are exported.

→ Types of Farming

  • Cultivation methods have changed significantly depending upon the characteristics of physical environment, technological know-how and socio-cultural practices.
  • The types of farming are primitive subsistence farming, intensive subsistence farming and commercial farming.
  • Primitive subsistence agriculture is a ‘slash and bum’ agriculture. When the fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land for cultivation.
  • Practised on small patches of land, with primitive tools and family or community labourers. ‘This type of farming depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil.
  • Intensive subsistence farming is practised in the. are.as of high population pressure on land. It is a labour-intensive farming with high dose of biochemical inputs and irrigation to obtain higher production. The size of land holding is uneconomical but the farmers continue to take the maximum output from the limited land.
  • Commercial farming involves the use of higher doses of modem inputs, like high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order to obtain higher productivity. The degree of commercialisation varies from one region to another. Plantation agriculture is a type of commercial farming where a single crop is grown on a large area. It has an interface of agriculture and industry.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 4 Agriculture

→ Cropping Pattern

  • The three cropping seasons of India are – rabi, kharif and zaid.
  • Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June. Wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard are some rabi crops. Wheat and other rabi crops are grown in Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. Availability of precipitation from western temperate cyclone helps in the success of these crops. Green Revolution has been an important factor in the growth of the rabi crops in the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.
  • Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon and harvested in September- October. Important crops are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur, moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean. Important rice growing states are Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Konkan coast, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
  • Zaid season is a short season between the rabi and kharif seasons. Some of the crops grown in this season are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables, sugarcane and fodder crops.

→ Major Crops:

  • Major crops grown are rice, wheat, millets, pulse, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute, etc.
  • Rice is a staple crop of majority of people of India. India is the second largest producer of rice after China. It requires high temperature, high humidity and annual rainfall of above 100 cm. In areas of less rainfall, irrigation is required. It is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal and deltaic regions. Development of dense canal irrigation and tube wells has enabled rice cultivation in areas of less rainfall.
  • Wheat is the second most important cereal crop. It requires a cool growing season, bright surlshine at the time of ripening, and 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall equally distributed over the growing season. There are two important wheat growing zones. Major wheat producing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh.
  • Millets, also known as coarse grains, are of high nutritious value. Jowar, bajra and ragi are important millets grown in India.
  • Maize is used both as food and fodder. It is a kharif crop. It grows in old alluvial soil. In some states it is grown as rabi crop. Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh are major maize producing states.
  • Pulses: Iifdia is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world. It is a major source of protein in vegetarian diet. Except for arhar, all pulses are leguminous crops and help restore soil fertility by fixing nitrogen. Therefore, they are grown in rotation with other crops. Major pulse producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

→ Food Crops other than Grains

  • Sugarcane is a tropical as well as subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and humid climate, and annual rainfall between 75 cm and 100 cm. It can grow on variety of soil. It requires manual labour from sowing to harvesting. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane after Brazil. The main sugarcane producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.
  • Main oilseeds produced in India are groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum, soyabean, castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower seeds. Most of these are edible and used as cooking medium. Some of these are used as raw material in the production of soap, cosmetics and ointments.
  • Tea is a plantation agriculture. It was introduced by the British in India and is a popular beverage. It grows in tropical and sub-tropical climates. It is a labour-intensive industry. Major tea producing states are Assam, hills of Daijeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
  • Coffee is a plantation crop. The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in the country. Its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
  • India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables after China. India produces tropical as well as temperate fruits. Variety of fruits and vegetables is grown all over the country.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 4 Agriculture

→ Non-Food Crops:

  • Rubber: It grows in tropical and sub-tropical areas. It requires moist and humid climate. It is an important industrial raw material. It mainly grows in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Garo hills of Meghalaya and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
  • Fibre crops: Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are fibre crops. Cotton, jute and hemp are grown on soil. Natural silk is obtained from cocoons of silkworms fed on mulberry leaves. Rearing of silkworms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.
  • India is the second largest producer of cotton after China. Cotton grows well in black soil of the Deccan plateau. Major cotton producing states are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
  • Jute is known as the golden fibre. It grows well on the well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed every year. It is grown in West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya. It is used for making gunny bags, coir mats, ropes, yam, carpets and’artefacts. It is losing its market to synthetic fibres, especially the nylon because of its high cost.

→ Technological and Institutional Reforms

  • Sustained uses of land without compatible techno-institutional changes have hindered the pace of agricultural development.
  • Collectivisation, consolidation of land holdings, cooperation and abolition of zamindari, etc. were given priority to bring institutional reforms in the country after Independence.
  • Reforms were introduced by the Government of India in the 1960s and 1970s to improve Indian agriculture.
  • The Green Revolution, which was based on the use of package technology and the White Revolution (Operation Flood) were some of the strategies initiated to improve the lot of Indian -agriculture.
  • However the development was in the selected areas only.
  • Some important steps taken were provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire, disease, establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative societies, etc.
  • Kissan Credit Card (KCC) and Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS), Minimum Support Price, special weather bulletins, etc. for farmers were introduced by the Government of India.
  • Bhoodan Gramdan or Bloodless Revolution by Vinoba Bhave was a successful movement.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 4 Agriculture

→ Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture

  • Though globalisation has been in India since the British rule and even before, it affected the farmers after 1990 when they found it difficult to compete with the developed countries because of the highly subsidised agriculture in those countries.
  • Genetic engineering is recognised as a powerful supplement in inventing new hybrid varieties of seeds. Organic farming is in vogue and encouraged.
  • There should be a change in cropping pattern from cereals to high-value crops to increase earning from agriculture as the economists feel the future of Indian farmers will be bleak, if they continue with foodgrain production on small landholdings.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Water Resources

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JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Water Resources

→ Three-fourth of the earth’s surface is covered with water but only a small proportion of it is freshwater that can be put to use.

  • Freshwater is mainly obtained from precipitation, surface run-off and groundwater.
  • Groundwater isTieing continually renewed and recharged through the hydrological cycle.
  • It is predicted that by 2025 nearly two billion people will live in absolute water scarcity.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Water Resources

→ Water Scarcity7 and the Need for Water Conservation and Management

  • The availability of water resources varies over time and space because of variations in seasonal and annual precipitation.
  • Water scarcity in most cases is caused by over-exploitation, excessive use and unequal access to water among different social groups.
  • Water scarcity may be due to outcome of large and growing population and consequent gfeater demands for water and unequal access to it.
  • This means higher food grain production.
  • This leads to exploitation of water resources to expand irrigated areas and dry-season agriculture. .
  • Most farmers have their own wells and tube wells in their farms for irrigation to increase their produce. This may reduce the level of groundwater which may adversely affect the availability of water and food security of the people.
  • The existing freshwater resources are under tremendous pressure from the ever- increasing number of industries, multiplying urban centres and urban lifestyles.
  • Scarcity of water may also be due to bad quality of water. Water may be polluted by domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals, pesticides and fertilisers used in agriculture, thus, making it hazardous for human use.
  • It is necessary to conserve and manage water resources to safeguard ourselves from health hazards, to ensure food security, continuation of our livelihoods and productive activities and to prevent degradation of natural ecosystems.
  • Overexploitation and mismanagement of water resources will deplete this resource and cause ecological crisis which may affect our lives deeply.

→ Multi-Purpose River Projects and Integrated Water Resources Management

  • Archaeological and historical records show that in the ancient times construction of sophisticated hydraulic structures, such as dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs, lakes, embankments and canals for irrigation.
  • Traditionally dams were built to impound rivers and rainwater that could be used later for irrigating agricultural fields. These days dams are constructed not only for irrigation, but also for electricity generation, flood control, domestic and industrial water supply, fish breeding, inland navigation and recreation. They are now known as multi¬purpose river projects.
  • The multi-purpose projects were launched after Independence with their integrated water resource management approach with aim of leading the nation to development and progress. Jawaharlal Nehru proclaimed dams as the‘temples of modem India’.
  • However, multi-purpose projects have their disadvantages. These projects lead to sedimentation, which obstructs the natural flow, resulting in rockier stream beds; make it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate, especially for spawning; submerge the floodplains and vegetation, leading to decomposition of soil over a period of time.
  • Multi-purpose projects also lead to large- scale displacement of local communities, tearing them off of their livelihood and resources. Social movements like Narmada Bachao Andolan and Tehri Dam Andolan resist these projects.
  • Irrigation has changed the cropping pattern as farmers have shifted to water-intensive cropping causing salinisation of soil.
  • Inter-state water disputes have increased.
  • These dams have triggered floods due to sedimentation in the reservoif, induced earthquakes, and caused land degradation, water-borne diseases, pests and pollution due to excessive use of water.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Water Resources

→ Rainwater Harvesting:

  • Water harvesting is a viable alternative, both socio-economically and environmentally as compared to the multi-purpose projects.
  • In ancient India, there had been sophisticated hydraulic systems of rainwater harvesting.
  • People had in-depth knowledge of rainfall regimes, wide range of techniques to harvest rainwater, river water, flood water and recharge the groundwater sources, keeping in mind the ecological conditions and their water needs.
  • In the mountainous regions, people built channels like ‘kuhls’ or ‘guls’ for agriculture. In Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their fields.
  • In the arid and semi-arid regions ofRajasthan, farmers converted their agricultural fields into rain-fed storage structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil like the ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan. In Bengal, people carved out inundation channels to irrigate their fields.
  • In Bikaner, Phalodi and Banner, Rajasthan, people had well-structured rooftop rainwater harvesting system which were connected with underground tanks or tankas for storing water also called ‘Palar pani’.
  • This water was used during the dry season when there was scarcity of water.
  • Today, in western Rajasthan plenty of water is available due to the perennial Indira Gandhi Canal.
  • Gendathur, a remote backward village of Mysuru, Karnataka has earned the rare distinction of being rich in rainwater by practising rooftop rainwater harvesting system.
  • Tamil Nadu is the first state to make rooftop rainwater harvesting compulsory to all houses across the state. There are legal provisions to punish the defaulters.
  • Shillong in Meghalaya, 200-year old bamboo drip irrigation system is followed for irrigating plants.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes