Class 7 – Page 5 – Jharkhand Board Solution

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Our Changing Earth

June 4, 2022May 28, 2022 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Our Changing Earth

→ The lithosphere is fragmented into a number of plates known as the Lithospheric plates.

Lithospheric plates move around very slowly say just a few millimetres each year, this happens because of the movement of the molten magma inside the earth.
The earth movements are classified on the basis of the forces which cause them.
Two types of forces works: The forces which act in the interior of the earth are known as Endogenic forces and the forces that work on the surface of the earth are known as Exogenic forces.
Sudden movements such as earthquakes and volcanoes cause mass destruction over the surface of the earth.
A vent means opening in the earth’s crust through which molten material erupts suddenly is known as a volcano.
When the Lithospheric plates move, the surface of the earth vibrates which travel all round the earth. These vibrations are known as earthquakes. The focus is the place in the crust where the movement starts. The epicentre is the place on the surface above the focus.
Though earthquakes cannot be predicted, but some common earthquake prediction methods adopted locally by the people include studying animal behaviour such as fish in the ponds get agitated, snakes come to the surface, etc.
The device used for measuring earthquake is Seismograph. Richter scale helps to measure the magnitude of the earthquake.

→ Earthquake preparedness – where to take shelter when earthquake occurs.

Safe spots are under a kitchen counter, a table, against an insided comer or wall.
Stay away from fire places such as chimneys, windows with glass pane, pictures.
Always be prepared by spreading awareness among your family members and friends and face any disaster and hurdle confidently.

→ Major Land Forms:

The landscape is being continuously worn away by two processes, they are weathering and erosion.
The breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s surface is known as Weathering. The wearing away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind and ice is known as Erosion.
The process of erosion and deposition create different and numerous landforms on the surface of the earth.

→ Work of a River:

A waterfall is formed when the river tumbles at steep angle over very hard rocks or down a steep valley side.
Meanders are formed by turns and large bends when the river enters the plain and twists.
An ox-bow lake is formed in due course of time when the meander loop cuts off from the river and forms a cut-off lake.
As the river floods, it deposits layers of fine soil and other material called sediments along its banks and this leads to the formation of a flat fertile flood plain. Thus, the raised banks are called levees.
The speed of the flowing river decreases as it approaches the sea and river begins to break up into a number of streams known as distributaries.
A delta is formed by the collection of sediments from all the mouths.

→ Work of Sea Waves:

Sea caves are the hollow caves which are formed on the rocks.
Sea arches are formed when these cavities become bigger and bigger in size and only the roof of the caves remain.
Stacks are the only walls which are left where erosion breaks the roof. Sea cliff are the steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above sea water.
The sea waves deposit sediments along the shores forms the beaches.

→ Work of Ice:

Rivers of ice which too erode the landscape by bulldozing soil and stones to expose the solid rock below is known as Glaciers.
The different material carried by the glacier such as rocks big and small, sand and silt gets deposited and these deposits form glacial moraines.

→ Work of Wind:

Mushroom rocks are the rocks which you find in deserts in the shape of a mushroom.
When the wind stops blowing the sand falls and gets deposited in low hill like structures are known as sand dunes.
The grains of sand becomes very fine and light, the wind can carry it over very long distances. When such sand is deposited in large areas, it is known loess. Large deposits of loess is found in China.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 4 Air

June 4, 2022May 27, 2022 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 4 Air

→ Earth is surrounded by a huge layer of air known as atmosphere.

On the earth all the living creatures depend on the atmosphere for their survival.
With the absence of this layer of protection, we would have been baked by the scorching heat of the sun at daytime and frozen at night time. Hence, the temperature of the earth is liveable due to this layer of air.

→ Composition of the Atmosphere:

The two main gases which make the most of the atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen. Carbon dioxide, helium, ozone, argon and hydrogen are found in less quantities.
Tiny and minute dust particles are also present in the atmosphere apart from these gases.
We take some amount of nitrogen when we inhale into our lungs and exhale it.
Plants take nitrogen from soil and roots of the plant which is brought by the bacterias and change its form so that plants can use it as they cannot take nitrogen directly.
The second most abundant gas found is the oxygen. Green plants produces oxygen during photosynthesis and humans and animals use oxygen to breathe.
The balance gets disturbed if we cut down the forests in large numbers.
The other important gas is carbon dioxide. Plants use carbon dioxide to make their food and release oxygen. Humans and animals release carbon dioxide.
The balance gets disturbed by burning of fuels like oils, coal. Hence, the earth’s climate and weather gets affected by the increased volume of carbon dioxide.

→ Structure of the Atmosphere:

Starting from the earth’s surface, the atmosphere has been divided into five layers – Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and Exosphere.
Troposphere – Themost important layer of the atmosphere is Troposphere and its average height is 13 km. The air we breathe exists here. Most of the weather incidences such as rainfall, fog and hailstorm occur in this layer.
Stratosphere – Stratosphere lies above the troposphere and it extends up to a height of 50 km. This layer is almost free from clouds and related weather incidences are making ideal conditions for flying aeroplanes. One of the important features is that it contains a layer of ozone gas.
Mesosphere – The third layer of the atmosphere is mesosphere. Above the stratosphere it is situated and extends up to the height of 80 km. On entering from the space, meteorites bum up in this layer.
Thermosphere – Temperature rises very rapidly and fast with increasing height in thermosphere.
Ionosphere is a part of this layer and it extends between 80^100 km. Radio transmission happens in this layer. In fact, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer.
Exosphere- It is the upper most layer of the atmosphere. It has very thin air. Light gases are present such as helium and hydrogen float into the space from here.

→ Weather and Climate:
Weather is the hour-to-hour, day to day condition of the atmosphere. But, the average weather condition or phenomena of a place for a longer period of time is called as the climate of a place.

→ Temperature:

The degree or level of hotness and coldness of the air is called as the temperature.
The atmosphere’s temperature changes not only between day and night but also from season to season as well.
The incoming solar energy intercepted by the earth is called the insolation. It is one of the important factors that influence the distribution of temperature.
Towards the poles, the amount of insolation decreases from the equator hence the temperature also decreases.
Temperature in cities is much higher than that of villages because of the concrete and metals in buildings and the asphalt of roads get heated up during the day and this is released during the night.

→ Air Pressure

From all directions, the air presses us and our body exerts a counter pressure.
The pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth’s surface is called the air pressure. It is highest at sea level and decreases with height.
Low pressure is related to cloudy skies and wet weather. A low-pressure is created in areas where temperature is high and the air gets heated and rises.
High pressure is related to clear and sunny skies. Heavy air sinks and creates a high pressure area and the air always moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.

→ Wind

Wind is the movement of air from high pressure area to low pressure areas.
It is divided into three parts:
- Permanent winds
- Seasonal winds
- Local winds
Permanent winds are the trade winds, westerlies and easterlies. They blow constantly throughout the year in a particular direction.
Seasonal winds are the winds which change their direction in different seasons such as monsoons in India.
Local winds are the winds which blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area such as land and sea breeze. The hot and dry local wind of northern planes of India is called loo.

→ Moisture

We know that when water evaporates from land and different water bodies, it becomes water vapour. Humidity is the moisture in the air at any time. When the air is full of water vapour then it is called as a humid day.
Clouds are just masses of water droplets. The water vapour condenses which cause the formation of these droplets of water.
Precipitation happens when these droplets of water become too heavy to float in air and then they come down.
Rain is the precipitation that comes down to the earth in liquid form.
The three types of rainfall are the convectional rainfall, the orographic rainfall and the cyclonic rainfall.
For the survival of plants and animals, rainfall is very important as it brings fresh water to the earth’s surface. If rainfall is less then water scarcity and drought occur and if it is more, then floods take place.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Water

June 4, 2022May 27, 2022 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Water

→ The heat of sun causes evaporation of water vapour and when it cools down, it condenses and forms clouds. Then it may fall on the land or sea in the form of rain, snow or sleet.

Water cycle is the process by which water continually changes its form and circulates between oceans and seas, atmosphere and land.
Our earth is like a terrarium. The water which existed centuries ago still exists today.
The fresh water majorly comes from the rivers, ponds, springs and glaciers. The ocean bodies and the seas contains salty or saline water as it contains huge amount of dissolved salts. Most of the salt is of sodium chloride.

→ Distribution of Water bodies:
Three-fourth of the earth surface is covered by water. The following table gives the distribution of water in percentage:

Saline water	Oceans	97.3
Fresh water	Ground water	0.68
	Ice caps	2.0
	Fresh water lakes and Inland seas	0.009
	Salt lakes	0.009
	Atmosphere	0.0019
	Rivers	0.0001
	Total	100.00

→ Ocean Circulation:
In oceans, the movements that occur can be categorised as waves, tides and currents.

→ Waves:

Waves occurs when the water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls alternately.
The winds blows at a very high speed forms huge waves during a storm and causes destruction in an enormous way. An earthquake, a volcanic eruption or underwater landslides may shift large amounts of ocean water. The huge tidal wave is known as tsunami which may be as high as 15 m.
The largest tsunami ever measured was as high as 150 m. and travels at a speed of more than 700 km. per hour.

→ Tides:

A tide is the periodic, regular rise and fall of ocean water twice in a day.
When water covers much of the shore by rising to its highest level then it is high tide. When water falls to its lowest level and recedes from the shore then it is low tide.
On the earth’s surface, the strong gravitational pull exerted by the sun and the moon causes the tides.
When the sun, the moon and the earth are in the same line during the full moon and new moon days then the tides are highest. These type of tides are known as spring tides.
The ocean waters get drawn in diagonally opposite directions by the gravitational pull of sun and earth resulting in low tides when the moon is in its first and last quarter. These type of tides are known as neap tides.
High tides helps in navigation, fishing and to generate electricity in some areas.

→ Ocean Currents:

Streams of water which flows constantly on the ocean surface in definite directions is known as ocean currents. The ocean currents may be warm or cold.
The warm ocean currents emerge near the equator and move towards the poles. The cold ocean currents carry water from polar or higher latitudes to tropical or lower latitudes.
These currents influence the temperature conditions of the area. The Labrador Ocean current is cold current while the Gulf Stream is a warm current.
The areas where a warm and cold current is present, they experience the foggy weather which makes navigation difficult but provides the best fishing grounds.
Types of tides in sea or ocean are flood tide and ebb tide. Flood tide are the rise of sea level and the fall in sea level is called the ebb tide.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Natural Vegetation and Wild Life

June 4, 2022May 27, 2022 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Natural Vegetation and Wild Life

→ As their is change in height, the climate also changes and that changes the natural vegetation. The growth of vegetation depends on temperature and moisture. It also depends on factors like slope and thickness of soil.

From place to place, the type and thickness of natural vegetation varies.
Natural vegetation is classified in to three broad categories:
Forests: Grows where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a tree cover. Depending upon all these factors, dense and open forests grown.
Grasslands: Grows in the region of moderate rain.
Shrubs: Thorny shrurbs and scrubs grows in the dry region.
Due to the changes of climatic condition occurs mainly because of the type of natural vegetation.

→ Forests:

Tropical Evergreen Forests
These forests are also known as tropical rainforests. These thick forests are found mainly in the regions- near the equator and close to the tropics. These regions are hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year and no particular dry season, thus the trees do not shed their leaves altogether. Hence, they are called evergreen.
Rosewood, ebony, mahogany are common trees are also known as hardwood trees.

→ Tropical Deciduous Forests

These are the monsoon forests which are found in the large part of India, northern Australia and in central America. These regions experience seasonal changes and trees shed their leaves in the dry season to conserve water.
The trees found in these forests are sal, teak, neem and s his ham. These are extremely useful for making furniture, transport and constructional materials.
The common animals of these regions are tigers, lions, elephants, langoors and monkeys.

→ Temperate Evergreen Forests

These forests are located in the mid latitudinal coastal region.
They are found along the eastern margin of the continents, e.g., in southeast USA, South China and in South East Brazil.
Trees found are oak, pine, eucalyptus, etc. which are both hard and soft wood trees.

→ Temperate Deciduous Forests

These are found in the north eastern part of USA, China, New Zealand, Chile and in the coastal regions of Western Europe,
They shed their leaves in the dry season.
The trees found are oak, ash, beech, etc.
The animals found are deer, foxes, wolves.
Birds like pheasants, monals are found here.

→ Mediterranean Vegetation

The west and south west margins of the continents are different. They have Mediterranean vegetation.
It is found in the areas around the Mediterranean sea in Europe, Africa and Asia.
This kind of vegetation is also found outside the actual Mediterranean region in California in the USA, south west Africa, South America and South west Australia.
These regions are having hot dry summers and mild rainy winters.
Oranges, figs, olives and grapes are citrus fruits which are cultivated here because people have removed the natural vegetation in order to cultivate what they wish to.
Wildlife is not present here that much.

→ Coniferous Forests

The important variety of trees in these forests are Chir, pine, cedar.
Trees are tall, softwood evergreen trees.
These woods are very useful for making pulp, which is used for manufacturing paper and newsprint.
Match boxes and packing boxes are also made from softwood.

→ Grasslands
Two types of grasslands:

Tropical and
Temperate Grasslands.

→ Tropical Grasslands

These grow on either side of the equator and extend till the tropics.
This vegetation grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall.
These can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres in height.
Savannah grasslands of Africa are of this type.
In tropical grasslands, animals found are elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards.

→ Temperate Grasslands

These are found in the midlatitudinal zones and in the interior part of the continents.
Grass is short and nutritious.
In the temperate region, the animals which are found are wild buffaloes, bisons, antilopes.

→ Thorny Bushes

These are found in the dry desert such as tropical deserts which are located in the western margins of the continents.
The vegetation cover is scarce here because of scanty rain and scorching heat.

→ Tundra Vegetation

The polar region is extremely cold.
The growth of natural vegetation is very limited here.
Only mosses, lichens and very small shrubs are found here.
It grows during the very short summer. These are known as Tundra type of vegetation.
They are found in the polar areas of Europe, Asia and North America.
The animals have thick fur and skin to protect themselves from the cold climatic conditions. Some of the animals are seal, walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear and snow foxes.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 1 Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years

June 4, 2022May 27, 2022 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 1 Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years

→ The Arab geographer, Al-Idrisi made the map of the world in 1154 CE showing Indian subcontinent.

In 1720s, French people made maps which were quite different from Al-Idrisi’s map.
Cartographers are the skilled people who draw and develop maps which involve scientific, technological and art aspects.

→ New and Old Terminologies:

Over the period of time, historical records and facts existed through different languages. There is a vast difference in grammar, vocabulary and in the meaning of words as well. The term Hindustan was used by Minhaj-i-Siraj, a Persian chronicler in 13th century, which has now become India.
Babur in the early 16th century used “Hindustan” to describe the geography, fauna and the culture of the subcontinent. Whereas, in 14th century, Amir Khusrau used, the word “Hind” for the same context.
Historians are very cautious about the terms and words they use as they had different meanings in the past. For example, by “foreigner” we mean who is not Indian. But in the medieval time, it meant any unfamiliar person who was part of the same village but not a part of the particular society or culture.
In Hindi, the term pardesi and in Persian ajnabi are used for “foreigner”.

→ Historians and their Sources:

Historians use different sources to learn about the past. These sources are coins, inscriptions, textual records and architecture.
People started using paper in this period and historians got many information. They used to write holy texts, ruler’s chronicles, letters and teachings of saints.
Manuscripts were kept in libraries and archives. They were collected from wealthy people, monasteries, rulers and temples.
Manuscripts helped the historians but faced many difficulties as scripts were handwritten. Printing press was not invented.
People used to revise their chronicles at different times. The 14th century author, Ziyauddin Barani wrote his first chronicle in 1356 CE and second one after two years and they differ a lot with each other.

→ New Social and Political Groups:

Historians faced challenges between 700 BC and 1750 CE as there were many different technological developments took place. Some of them were the spinning wheel in weaving, the Persian wheel in irrigation and firearms in combat.
The subcontinent also saw development in food and beverages; potatoes, chillies, com, tea, coffee. This came with people and hence it was a period of political, social, economic and cultural changes.
One of the influential communities emerged in this period. It was of Rajputs or “Rajaputra”. They were warriors, rulers, chieftains, soldiers and were known as Kshatriyas by caste which existed from 8th to 14th centuries.
This period experienced the extension of agriculture and clearing of forests. Many forest dwellers migrated and changed their habitat.
Peasant group came into existence influenced by regional markets, monasteries, chieftains and temples.
Gradually, people were grouped into sub-castes or “jatis” based on their occupation. The status of the same jati could vary from place to place. These were not permanent and diversified according to the power, influence and resources controlled by members of the jati.
Jati Panchayats were formed. They framed their own rules and regulations. But jatis were also bound to follow the rules of the village.
Chieftain governed several villages which was a small unit of a state.

→ Region and Empire:

By 700 CE many regions developed their own geographical dimensions along with their own languages and cultural traits.
Between 700 and 1750 CE, there were significant developments as many areas were ruled by different kingdoms.

→ Old and New Religions:

During these 1000 years, religious tradition developed majorly.
Hinduism saw many changes during this period. It includes worshipping of new deities, construction of temples by kingdoms and rise of Brahmanas as a prominent group in society.
Other developments were the rising of the idea of bhakti.
Muslims regarded Quran as their holy book. It appeared in 7th century and the teachings were brought by the merchants in the subcontinent.
There were sets of followers in Islam as well and divided into two sects – Shia and Sunni.

→ Thinking about Time and Historical Periods

British historians in the middle of the 19th century divided the history of India into three periods – Hindu, Muslim and British.
Their concept was based on religion of the ruler as there was no major development in the social, economic or cultural aspects.
The Indian societies–reached a level of prosperity that attracted many European trading companies.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 9 The Making of Regional Cultures

June 4, 2022May 27, 2022 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 9 The Making of Regional Cultures

→ Today regional cultures are often the product of complex processes of intermixing of local traditions and cultures with the ideas from the other parts of the subcontinent. Some of the traditions appear to be specific to some regions or areas, others seem to be similar across regions and yet others derive from older practices in a specific region but take a new form in other regions.

→ The Cheras and the Development of Malayalam:

In the ninth century, the Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the south-western part of the peninsula which is now a part of present-day Kerala and Malayalam was spoken and used in this area. In official records in the subcontinent, this one is the earliest examples of the use of a regional language.
But at the same time, the Cheras also drew upon Sanskritic traditions. Around the twelfth century, the first literary works in Malayalam are directly bounded to Sanskrit. A fourteenth-century text, named as the Lilatilakam was composed in Manipravalam means ‘diamonds and corals’ referring to the two languages which were Sanskrit and the regional language.

→ Rulers and Religious Traditions: The Jagannatha Cult:

Regional cultures grew around religious traditions in other regions. One of the best instance of this process is the cult of Jagannatha which means lord of the world, a name for Vishnu at Puri, Orissa (now Odisha).
Till date, the local tribal people make the wooden image of the deity which suggests that the deity was originally a local god.
One of the major rulers of the Ganga Dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to erect a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri in the twelfth century. In 1230, King Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and announced officially himself as the ‘deputy’ of the god.
Those who conquered Orissa (now Odisha) such as the Mughals, the Marathas and the English East India Company, they attempted to gain control over the temple. They thought that this would make their rule admissible to the local people as its authority in social and political matters also increased.

→ The Rajputs and Traditions of Heroism:

The Rajputs are often acknowledged as contributing to the distinctive culture of Rajasthan. From about eighth century, the Rajput rulers cherished the ideal of the hero who fought heroically and often choosing death on the battlefield rather than to face defeat.
Many stories and narratives about Rajput heroes were recorded in the form of poems and songs which were recited by specially trained minstrels.
Women are also portrayed as following their heroic husbands in both life and death, there are many tales about the practice of sati or the immolation of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands.

→ Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak

One of the dance form is Kathak which is now associated with several parts of north India. The word kathak is derived from katha which means a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for story.
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the growth of the bhakti movement, Kathak began to evolve into a distinct mode of dance. Radha-Krishna tales were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila where folk dance combined with the basic gestures of the kathak story-narrators.
Kathak was performed in the court under the Mughal emperors and their nobles where it developed in a form of dance with a distinctive style.
Kathak developed in two traditions or gharanas— one in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow. Under the assistance and support of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh it grew into one of the major art form.
After the independence, Kathak was recognized as one of the six classical dances of India. The other classical dances are Kathakali, Bharatnatyam, Odissi, Manipuri and Kuchipudi.

→ Painting for Patrons: The Tradition of Miniatures

Another tradition that developed in different ways was that of miniature painting. In earlier days, miniatures were beautifully painted on palm leaves or wood found in western India which were used to illustrate Jaina texts.
Most of the miniatures were exchanged as gifts and were viewed only by the exclusive people, the emperor and his close associates.
Mughal artistic tastes had an impact on the regional courts of the Deccan and the Rajput courts of Rajasthan. But, they retained and developed their distinctive characteristics. Also the themes from mythology and poetry were described at centres such as Mewar, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh.
In the late seventeenth century, another region that attracted miniature paintings was the Himalayan foothills and had developed a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli. The most popular painting was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari.
In the mid-eighteenth century, the Kangra artists developed a style in miniature painting. The source of creativity and innovation was the Vaishnavite traditions. Kangra painting was different from others as they used soft colours including cool blues and greens, and a lyrical treatment of themes.
Also ordinary and simple women and men painted on pots, walls, floors, cloth and their works of art have occasionally survived, unlike the miniatures that were carefully preserved in palaces for centuries.

→ A Closer Look: Bengal – The Growth of a Regional Language

By the third-fourth centuries BCE, commercial ties began to develop between
Bengal and Magadha (south Bihar) which may have led to the growing influence of Sanskrit.
The verbal and cultural influence from the mid-Ganga valley became stronger during fourth century. The Chinese traveller Xuan Zang in the seventh century marked that languages related to Sanskrit were in use all over Bengal.
Bengal became the centre of a regional kingdom under the Palas in the eighth century. When Akbar conquered Bengal in 1586, it formed the nucleus of the Bengal suba. Bengali developed as a regional language, while Persian was the language of administration.
By the fifteenth century, the Bengali group of dialects became united by a common literary language based on the spoken language of the western part of the region which is now known as West Bengal. Though Bengali is derived from Sanskrit, it passed through several stages of evolution. It includes a wide range of non-Sanskrit words which derived from a variety of sources such as tribal languages, Persian, and European languages all become a part of modem Bengali.
The early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories—one indebted to Sanskrit and the other independent of it. The first consists of translations of the Sanskrit epics, the Mangalakavyas means auspicious poems which deals with local deities and bhakti literature such as the biographies of Chaitanyadeva, the leader of the Vaishnava bhakti movement.
And, the second one consists of Nath literature such as the songs of Maynamati and Gopichandra and stories of Dharma Thakur, fairy tales, folk tales and ballads.

→ Pirs and Temples:

There were community leaders who also performed and served as teachers and adjudicators and were sometimes attributed with supernatural powers. These people were referred as pirs who also get affection and respect.
These also included saints or Sufis and other religious personalities, brave colonisers and deified soldiers, varied Hindu and Buddhist deities and even animistic spirits. Thus, the cult of pirs became very popular and their shrines can be found everywhere in Bengal.
In Bengal, most of the modest brick and terracotta temples were built with the support of different Tow’ social groups, such as the Kolu (oil pressers) and the Kansari (bell metal workers). Many families belonging to these social groups got benefits with the coming of the European trading companies which created new economic opportunities.
Their social and economic position were improving and hence, they proclaimed their status through the construction of temples. The temples began to copy the double- roofed means dochala or four-roofed means chauchala structure of the thatched huts. This led to the evolution of the typical Bengali style in temple architecture.
In some of the temples particularly in Vishnupur in the Bankura district of West Bengal, decorations reached a high degree of excellence. As the interior was comparatively plain but the outer walls of many temples were decorated with paintings, ornamental tiles or terracotta tablets.

→ Fish as Food:

Since, Bengal is a riverine plain hence it produces plenty of rice and fish. One of the most important occupation was fishing and Bengali literature contains several references to fish. Apart from this, terracotta plaques on the walls of temples and viharas (Buddhist monasteries) depicts the scenes of fish being dressed and taken to the market in baskets.
From a thirteenth century Sanskrit text from Bengal, the Brihaddharma Purana permitted the local Brahmanas to eat certain varieties of fish.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 3 The Delhi Sultans

June 4, 2022May 27, 2022 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 3 The Delhi Sultans

→ Delhi became an important city in the twelfth century.

It was under the Tomara Rajputs and Chauhans that Delhi became an important commercial centre.
Many rich Jaina merchants lived in the city and constructed several temples. Coins minted here, called dehliwal, had a wide circulation.
In the beginning of the thirteenth century, the transformation of Delhi into capital started with the foundation of Delhi Sultanate.

→ The rulers of Delhi Table 1:

Rajput Dynasties Tomaras Early twelfth century	1165
Ananga Pala	1130 – 1145
Chauhans	1165 – 1192
Prithviraj Chauhan	1175 – 1192
Early Turkish Rulers	1206 to 1290
Qutbuddin Aybak	1206 – 1210
Shamsuddin Iltutmish	1210 – 1236
Raziyya	1236 – 1240
Ghiyasuddin Balban	1266 – 1287
Khalji Dynasty	1290 to 1320
Jalaluddin Khalji	1290 – 1296
Alauddin Khalji	1296 – 1316
Tughlaq Dynasty	1320 to 1414
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq	1320 – 1324
Muhammad Tughluq	1324 – 1351
Firuz Shah Tughluq	1351 – 1388
Sayyid Dynasty	1414 to 1451
Khizr Khan	1414 – 1421
Lodi Dynasty	1451 to 1526
Bahlul Lodi	1451 – 1489

→ Finding out about the Delhi Sultans

Inscriptions, coins and architecture gives us a lot of information.
Tarikh (singular) / tawarikh (plural), were written in Persian, the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.
Tawarikh were written by learned men: secretaries, administrators, poets and courtiers who lived in Delhi and advised rulers on governance, stressing the significance of just rule based on gender and birthright distinctions.
Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter, Raziyya, became Sultan in 1236. But she was dethroned in 1240 as nobles were not satisfied to have a queen as a ruler.

→ From Garrison Town to Empire: The Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate

The control of the Delhi Sultans rarely went beyond heavily fortified towns occupied by garrisons in the early thirteenth century.
During the reigns of Ghiyasuddin Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq expansion occurred in the Delhi Sultanate.
Expansions occurred along the ‘internal frontier’ and ‘external frontier’ of the Sultanate.
The armies of the Delhi Sultanate had defeated rival armies and seized cities. The Sultanate collected taxes from the peasantry and dispensed justice in its kingdom.

→ A Closer Look: Administration and Consolidation under The Khaljis and Tughluqs

To administer the vast kingdom or Sultanate it required reliable administrators and govemers.
Iltutmish, favoured their special slaves purchased for military service, called bandagan in Persian. They were trained and Sultan could rely and trust upon them.
The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued to use bandagan and raised people of humble birth, who were often their clients, to high political positions in their kingdom.
In Persian tawarikh, the Delhi Sultans were criticised for appointing the “low and base- born” to high offices.
Military commanders were appointed as governors of territories of different sizes. These lands were called iqta and their holder was called iqtadar or muqti by the Khalji and Tughluq monarchs.
There were three types of taxes
1. on cultivation called kharaj and amounting to about 50 percent of the peasant’s produce,
2. on cattle and
3. on houses under the reign of Alauddin Khalji.
Genghis Khan, a Mongol ruler increased its attacks on Delhi which forced Khaljis and Tughluqs to mobilise large standing army in Delhi.

→ The Sultanate in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries

The Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled Delhi and Agra until 1526 after the Tughluqs. This period saw the emergence of groups like the Afghans and the Rajputs.
Many independent rulers flourished and became prosperous as well in Bengal, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Malwa, Jaunpur and whole south India.
Sher Shah Suri established his own Suri Dynasty from 1540-1555. Sher Shah’s administration became a model which was followed by Akbar as well. He took some segment from Alauddin Khalji and made them more efficient and powerful.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 8 Devotional Paths to the Divine

June 4, 2022May 27, 2022 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 8 Devotional Paths to the Divine

→ From the eighth century, various kinds of Bhakti and Sufi movements have evolved.

→ The Idea of a Supreme God

There was a belief that social privileges came from birth in a ‘noble’ family or a ‘high’ caste was the subject of many learned texts.
Most of the people were not comfortable with such ideas and turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas.
Rest of others felt attracted to the idea of a Supreme God who could deliver humans from such bondage if approached with full devotion or bhakti. This idea was advocated in the Bhagavadgita, which grew in popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.
Hence, Shiva, Vishnu and Durga were worshipped as supreme deities which came through elaborate rituals.
The Puranas also laid down the fact that it was possible for devotees to receive the grace of God regardless of their caste status.
The idea of bhakti became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas adopted these beliefs.

→ A New Kind of Bhakti in South India – Nayanars and Alvars

From the seventh to ninth centuries, they saw the emergence of new religious movements
led by the Nayanars (those were the saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (those were the saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes including those considered as ‘untouchable’ such as the Pulaiyar and the Panars.
They strongly criticized the Buddhists and Jainas and preached avid love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation.
In the Sangam literature, the ideals of love and heroism are found. It is the earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during the early centuries of the Common Era and blended them with the values of bhakti.
In between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Chola and Pandya-kings built elaborate temples. This was also the time when their poems were compiled. Apart from this, hagiographies or religious biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were also composed.

→ Philosophy and Bhakti

In the eighth century, Shankara, one of the most influential philosophers of India, was born in Kerala and was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the Ultimate Reality. He preached renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge to understand the actual nature of Brahman and attain salvation.
In the eleventh century, Ramanuja was born in Tamil Nadu and deeply influenced by the Alvars. According to him, through intense devotion to Vishnu one can attain the salvation. He introduced the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul even when united with the Supreme God remained distinct.

→ Basavanna’s Virashaivism:

In the mid-twelfth century, the Virashaiva movement was initiated by Basavanna and his companions like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi. This movement began in Karnataka.
They were strongly supportive for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women and also against all forms of ritual and idol worship.

→ The Saints of Maharashtra

From the thirteenth to seventeenth centuries, Maharashtra saw many saint-poets. The most important amongst them were Dnyaneshwar (Gyaneshwar), Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well as women like Sakkubai and the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the ‘untouchable’ Mahar caste.
These saint-poets rejected all forms of rituals. In fact, they even rejected the idea of renunciation and preferred to live with their families and earning their livelihood like any other person.
As the famous Gujarati saint Narsi Mehta said, “They are Vaishnavas who understand the pain of others.”
Hence, a new humanist idea emerged as they insisted that bhakti lay in sharing others’ pain.
Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis
The Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis were from the religious groups that emerged
during this period and criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order. They advocated renunciation of the world. For them meditation was the path to salvation.
They advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices likeyogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation. These groups became popular among the Tow’ castes.

→ Islam and Sufism:

Sufis rejected outward religiosity and emphasized on love and devotion to God and they were Muslim mystics.
Islam generated strict monotheism or submission to one God. It also rejected idol worship.
Shariat was a holy law developed by Muslim scholars. The Sufis often rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.
The Sufis too like saint poets composed poems expressing their feelings and a rich literature in prose, including anecdotes and fables, developed around them.
The great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.
They developed a detailed method of training using zikr means chanting of a name or sacred formula, contemplation, sama means singing, raqs means dancing, discussion of parables, breath control, etc., under the guidance of a master or pir. Thus, they emerged the silsilas means a genealogy of Sufi teachers, each following a slightly different method (tariqa) of instruction and ritual practice.
The most influential orders were the Chishti silsila among them. Many teachers were there such as Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawa Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.
The assemblies of the Sufi masters held in their khanqahs or hospices.
The tomb or dargah of a Sufi saint became a place of pilgrimage to which thousands of people of all faiths thronged and worshipped.

→ New Religious Developments in North India

In north India, after the thirteenth century, there was a new swing in the bhakti movement. This was the period when Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism, various strands of bhakti, and the Nathpanths, Siddhas and Yogis influenced and transformed each other.
Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak rejected all conservative and devout religions. Others like Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make these attainable to all. Tulsidas’s composition, the Ramcharitmanas is written in Awadhi (a language used in eastern Uttar Pradesh), is important both as an expression of his devotion for Rama and as a literary work.
Surdas was an avid devotee of Krishna. The Sursagara, Surasaravali and Sahitya Lahari are his composition which express his devotion.
In late fifteenth century, Shankaradeva of Assam focused on devotion to Vishnu and composed poems and plays in Assamese. He made namghars or houses of recitation and prayer, a practice which continues till date.
There were some more important saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai.
In the sixteenth century, Mirabai who was a Rajput princess married into the royal family of Mewar. She became a disciple of Ravidas, a saint from a caste considered ‘untouchable’.
Most of the saints works were composed in regional languages and could be sung. They became immensely popular and were handed down orally from generation to generation.

→ A Closer Look: Kabir

Kabir was one of the most influential saint in the fifteenth-sixteenth century. We get to know of Kabir’s ideas from a huge collection of verses called sakhis and pads said to have been composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers. They were later collected and preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani and Bijak.
His teachings were based on the rejection of the major religious traditions. The language of his poetry was understood by ordinary people as it was a form of spoken Hindi.
He believed in a formless Supreme God and advised that the only path to salvation was through bhakti or devotion.

→ A Closer Look: Baba Guru Nanak

Guru Nanak (1469-1539) bom at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib in * Pakistan) and he travelled widely before establishing a centre at Kartarpur known as Dera Baba Nanak on the river Ravi.
Whatever the caste, creed or gender is, his followers ate together in the common kitchen known as langar. Thus, the sacred space created by Gum Nanak was known as Dharamsala. Now it is called as Gurdwara.
Gum Angad who was appointed by Gum Nanak as his successor, compiled the compositions of Gum Nanak, and he added his own composition in a new script known as Gurmukhi.
In 1605, Gum Arjan compiled all the compositions under the name of ‘Nanak’. Other people’s writings were added to the compilation such as Shaikh Farid, Sant Kabir, Bhagat Namdev and Guru Tegh Bahadur. In 1706, this compilation was authenticated and approved by his son and successor, Gum Gobind Singh. Now, its known as Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of the Sikhs.
By the starting of the seventeenth century, the town of Ramdaspur now Amritsar had developed around the central Gurdwara called Harmandar Sahib which is known as Golden Temple.
The Khalsa Panth is the community of the Sikhs which became a political entity. It was started by Gum Gobind Singh in 1699.
The ideas of Gum Nanak had a huge impact on the development of the Sikh movement from the very beginning. He emphasized the importance of the worship of one God. He used the terms nam, dan and isnan for the essence of his teaching, which actually meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct.
Now his teachings are remembered as nam- japna, kirt-karna and vand-chhakna, which also mention the importance of right belief and worship, honest living, and helping others.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 7 Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities

June 4, 2022May 27, 2022 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 7 Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities

→ Society was divided according to the rules of varna in most parts of the subcontinent. These rules were prescribed by the Brahmanas and were accepted by the rulers of large kingdoms. The difference between the rich and poor increased.

→ Beyond Big Cities: Tribal Societies

There were other kinds of societies present as well in the subcontinent who did not follow the social rules and rituals dictated by the Brahmanas. Nor they were divided into numerous unequal classes. These types of societies are called tribes.
There was a distinctive bond of kinship among the members of each tribe. The main source of livelihood was agriculture but there were hunter-gatherers or herders as well. There were some tribes who were nomadic and moved from one place to another.
Many large tribes usually lived in forests, hills, deserts and places difficult to reach. The tribes retained their freedom and preserved their separate culture in various ways.

→ Who were Tribal People?

Tribal people did not keep written records but they preserved rich customs and oral traditions. And these were passed down to each new’ generation.
Some powerful tribes controlled large territories as people were found in almost every region of the subcontinent.
The Khokhar tribe in Punjab was very influential and powerful during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became more important. Kamal Khan Gakkhar, the chief was made mansabdar by Emperor Akbar.
The Langahs and Arghuns in Multan and Sind, dominated extensive regions before they were subdued by the Mughals.
The Balochis were another large and powerful tribe in the north-west.
The shepherd tribe of Gaddis lived in the western Himalaya.
The Nagas, Ahoms and many others too dominated the north-eastern part of the subcontinent.
Chero chiefdoms had emerged by the twelfth century in Bihar and Jharkhand. Akbar’s famous general Raja Man Singh attacked and defeated the Cheros in 1591.
The Mundas and Santals were among the other important tribes that lived in Jharkhand, Bihar, Orissa (now Odisha) and Bengal.
The Kolis, Berads and numerous other tribes were found in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Karnataka.
Far away south there were large tribal populations of Koragas, Vetars, Maravars and many others.
The tribe of Bhils were spread across western and central India.
Another tribe, the Gonds were found in good numbers across the present-day states of Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.

→ How Nomads and Mobile People Lived?

Nomads who lived on milk and other pastoral products and moved over long distances with their animals are called nomadic pastoralists. They also exchanged wool, ghee, etc., with settled agriculturists for grain, cloth, utensils and other products.
The most important trader nomads were the Banjaras. Their caravan was called tanda.
To transport grain to the city markets, Sultan Alauddin Khalji used the Banjaras.

→ Changing Society: New Castes and Hierarchies

As the society grew, people with new skills were required hence, smaller castes, or jatis, emerged within varnas.
Artisans such as smiths, carpenters and masons were also recognised as separate jatis by the Brahmanas. Jatis became the basis for organising society rather than varna.
New Rajput clans, the Kshatriyas became powerful by the eleventh and twelfth centuries. They belonged to different lineages such as Hunas, Chandelas, Chalukyas and some others. Among them, some had been tribes earlier. They moderately replaced the older rulers especially in agricultural areas.
The tribal people had to follow the Rajput clans to the position of rulers as they set an example for them.

→ A Closer Look The Gonds

The Gonds practised shifting cultivation as they lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana or “country inhabited by Gonds”.
The Akbar Nama reveals the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga that had 70,000 villages.
The kingdom was divided into garbs and each was controlled by a particular Gond clan. It was further divided into units of 84 villages called chaurasi. The chaurasi was again subdivided into barhots which were made up of 12 villages each.
The Gond raja of Garha Katanga Aman Das, assumed the title of Sangram Shah. His son, Dalpat, married princess Durgawati, the daughter of Salbahan, the Chandel Rajput raja of Mahoba.
She was very capable and brave and started ruling on behalf of her five-year old son, Bir Narain. In 1565, she was defeated by the Mughal forces under Asaf Khan and preferred to die than to surrender. Her son also died fighting after sometime.

→ The Ahoms

In the thirteenth century, the Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar. They created a new system of the bhuiyans means landlords.
They used firearms in 1530s and by that the Ahoms built a large state. They could even make high quality gunpowder and cannons by the 1660s.
In 1662, the Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked the Ahom kingdom but they were defeated.
The state depended upon forced labour. Those who were forced to work for the state were called paiks.
The new methods of rice cultivation was also introduced by Ahoms.
The society was divided into clans or khels. A khel often controlled several villages.
The Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods. During the reign of Sib Singh (1714-1744), Hinduism became the predominant religion. But they did not completely give up their traditional beliefs after adopting Hinduism.
The historical works known as buranjis were written first in the Ahom language and then in Assamese. It was a very sophisticated society. Theatre was encouraged a lot.

→ Conclusion:
This period saw more interaction between varna based society and the tribal groups. Few established extensive states with well- organised systems of administration hence, became politically powerful.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 5 Rulers and Buildings

June 4, 2022May 26, 2022 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 5 Rulers and Buildings

→ Kings and their officers built two kinds of structures between the eighth and the eighteenth centuries: the first were forts, palaces and tombs which were safe, protected and the second were structures meant for public activity including temples, mosques, tanks, wells, caravan, sarais and bazaars. From the eighteenth century only, domestic architecture like large mansions (havelis) of merchants has survived.

→ Engineering Skills and Construction:

Buildings and monuments provide a deep understanding of the technologies used for construction.
Architects started adding more rooms, doors and windows to buildings between the seventh and tenth centuries.
The trabeate or corbelled style was used in the construction of temples, mosques, tombs and in buildings attached to large stepped-wells (baolis) between the eighth and thirteenth centuries.
From the twelfth century, two technological and stylistic developments are visible. First is the weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows was sometimes carried by arches. This architectural form was called “arcuate”. Second is, the use of Limestone cement increased in construction.
The temples were decorated with detailed carved structures and had shikhara as well in the early eleventh century.

→ Building Temples, Mosques and Tanks
As temples and mosques were the places of worship hence they were beautifully constructed. They also exhibit the pow’er, wealth and devotion of the patron.

Kings constructed all the largest temples. These depicted the”picture of the world they rule. On the other hand, the other lesser deities in the temples were gods and goddesses of the allies and subordinates of the ruler. The temple w’as a miniature model of the world ruled by the king and his allies.
There were people who did not claim to be incarnations of god and they were Muslim Sultans and Padshahs but Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the “Shadow of God”.
Rulers got the chance to proclaim their close relationship with God by constructing the places of worship which was important in an age of rapid political change. Rulers also offered encouragement and support to the learned and pious people.
Sultan Iltutmish constructed a large reservoir just outside Dehli-i Kuhna called as the Hauz-i Sultani or the “King’s Reservoir” for which he acclaimed lots of respect universally.

→ Why were Temples Targeted?

Temples were built by the kings to demonstrate their devotion to God and their power and wealth, hence they attacked on one another’s kingdoms and looted the temples.
In the early ninth century, the Pandyan king Shrimara Shrivallabha invaded Sri Lanka and defeated the king, Sena I (831-851) and seized the Buddha monasteries and all the jewels. This blowed the pride of them.
In the early eleventh century, when the Chola King Rajendra I built a Shiva temple in his capital. He filled it with prized statues of gods and goddesses seized from defeated rulers.
Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni destroyed the temples during war as the one he did was Somnath temple which was attacked many times and sacked the temple as he tried to win credit and accolades. Even Portuguese attacked the temples and mosques in 1546.

→ Gardens, Tombs and Forts:

Architecture became more complex under the Mughals. Babur was interested in planning and laying out formal gardens which were placed within rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels called as Chahar Bagh.
During Akbar’s reign, many important architectural innovations happened. One of the important aspects of Mughal architecture which was first visible in Humayun’s tomb was the central towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq).
During Shah Jahan’s reign, we observe a huge amount of construction activity especially in Agra and Delhi. The ceremonial halls were carefully planned for public and private audience (diwan-i khas or diwan-i aam). These courts were also described as chihil sutnn or forty-pillared halls, placed within a large courtyard.
The Chahar Bagh garden was also known as the “river-front garden”. The Taj Mahal, the greatest architectural accomplishment of Shah Jahan’s reign also adapted the river-front garden.
He developed this form of architecture as a means to control the access that people had to the Yamuna river.

→ Region and Empire:

Between the eighth and eighteenth centuries there was also a considerable sharing of ideas across regions due to increased construction activities, the traditions of one region were adopted by another.
The local rulers in Bengal had developed a roof that was designed to resemble a thatched hut. This “Bangla dome” was liked by the Mughals very much that they used it in their architecture. The impact of other regions was also evident. In Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur Sikri many of the buildings used the architectural styles of Gujarat and Malwa.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 4 The Mughal Empire

June 4, 2022May 26, 2022 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes History Chapter 4 The Mughal Empire

→ In the middle age, Mughals had a very powerful empire. From the latter half of the sixteenth century till the seventeenth century, they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi and controlled nearly over all the subcontinent.

→ Who were the Mughals?

The Mughals were the successor of the two great descent of rulers.
From their maternal side, they were the descendants of Genghis Khan and from their paternal side, they were the descendant of Timur. However, Mughals were proud of their Timurid ancestry. They celebrated their genealogy pictorially.

→ Mughal Military Campaigns

The first Mughal emperor, Babur captured Delhi and Agra by defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat in the year 1526.
After the death of Babur in 1530, his son Humayun became the second Mughal emperor.
Humayun was defeated by Sher Khan twice in Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540) and forced him to flee to Iran. He recaptured Delhi in 1555 with the help of Safavid Shah but died in an accident a year later.
At the age of 13 years, Akbar became the emperor of Delhi. He was handling
the empire successfully as he was very competent. He seized Chittor in 1568 and Ranthambhor in 1569. He started the military campaign in Gujarat during the period 1570-1585 which was followed by the campaigns in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa. In 1605, Akbar died.
Jahangir became emperor in 1605, he was the son of Akbar. He continued the military campaigns started by Akbar. He campaigned against Sikhs and Ahoms. He died in the year 1627.
Shah Jahan continued the campaign in the Deccan. Amongst Shah Jahan’s sons there was a conflict over succession. Aurangzeb was victorious and his three brothers were killed including Dara Shukoh in Agra, Shah Jahan was imprisoned for the rest of the life. He died in the year 1666.
Aurangzeb succeeded the throne and one of his major campaign was against Maratha chieftain Shivaji. Initially, Aurangzeb got success but later on Shivaji became an independent king and resumed campaigns against Mughals.
Marathas started the guerrilla warfare hence from 1698, Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns. He also faced revolt in north India of the Jats, Sikhs and Satnamis.

→ Mughal Traditions of Succession
Mughal followed the Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance means a division of the inheritance amongst all the sons. They didn’t believe in the rale of primogeniture or birthright, where the eldest son inherited his father’s estate.

→ Mughal Relations with Other Rulers

Mughal campaigned constantly against rulers who refused to accept their authority. But many rulers also joined them voluntarily as the Mughals became powerful. The Rajputs were the one who joined. Many of them married their daughters into Mughal families and received high positions. But many were against them as well like the Sisodiya Rajputs.
However, they were honourably treated by the Mughals even if defeated, given their lands (watan) back as assignments (watanjagir).

→ Mansabdars and Jagirdars

The people who joined Mughal service were enrolled as Mansabdars. They were an individual who holds a mansab which means to hold a position or a rank.
Mughals used a grading system to fix three things viz; rank, salary and military responsibilities.
Zat was a numerical value which determined the rank and salary.
Mansabdars received their salary as revenue assignments known as jagirs which were similar to iqtas.
Jagirs were carefully assessed during the Akbar’s reign so that their salary were more or less equal to the mansabdar. But it was not same in the reign of Aurangzeb means the actual revenue collected was often very less from the granted sum. Hence, many jagirdars tried to extract as much revenue as possible while they had a jagir.

→ Zabt and Zamindars

The term zamindar was used to describe all intermediaries, whether they were local headmen of villages or powerful chieftains.
Akbar’s revenue minister, Todar Mai did a survey on crop yield and based on the data he fixed the tax on each crop for a ten-year period from 1570-1580.
The revenue system was introduced by Todar Mai and was called as zabt.
Zamindars had powers. Due to Mughal exploitation, zamindars and peasants revolted against them. Hence, from the end of the seventeenth century, it challenged the stability of the Mughal Empire.

→ A Closer Look – Akbar’s Policies

Abul Fazl wrote Akbar Nama which gives us details about Akbar’s reign.
As per Abul Fazl. the empire was divided into provinces known as subas and were governed by a subadar. Each province had a diwan or a financial officer.
Subadars were supported by different officers. They were the military paymaster called as Bakhshi. the minister in charge of religious and patronage called as Sadr, military commanders known as Faujdars and town police commissioners known as Kotwal.
Religious discussions were done at ibadat khana. Akbar got support from Abul Fazl in framing a vision of governance around the idea of Sulh-i Kul. These principles were later followed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan.

→ The Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century and After

Mughal empire had administrative and military efficiency which led to economic and commercial prosperity. They enjoyed a great deal of influence and power.
The wealthier peasantry, artisans, merchants were rising high in monetary terms and
power, whereas, the primary producers lived in poverty.
Hence, by the end of the seventeenth century, the Mughal empire started declining which gave rise to many independent provinces like Hyderabad and Awadh.