August 2024 – Page 3 – Jharkhand Board Solution

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes History Chapter 3 Ruling the Countryside

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes History Chapter 3 Ruling the Countryside

→ The Company Becomes the Diwan

On 12 August 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the East India Company as the Diwan of Bengal.
As Diwan, the Company became the chief financial administrator of the territory under its control. Now, it had to think of administering the land and organising its revenue resources.
Being an alien power, it needed to pacify those who in the past had ruled the countryside, and enjoyed authority and prestige.

→ Revenue for the Company

The Company had become the Diwan. but it still saw itself primarily as a trader.
Before 1865, the Company had purchased goods in India by importing gold and silver from Britain. Now the revenue collected in Bengal could finance the purchase of goods for export.
Artisans were deserting villages since they were being forced to sell their goods to the Company at low prices. Peasants were unable to pay the dues that were being demanded from them.
In 1770 a terrible famine killed ten million people in Bengal. About one-third of the population was wiped out.

→ The need to improve agriculture

Most Company officials began to feel that investment in land had to be encouraged and agriculture had to be improved.
In 1793, the Company introduced the Permanent Settlement.
By the terms of the settlement, the rajas and taluqdars were recognised as zamindars. They were asked to collect rent from the peasants and pay revenue to the Company.
The amount to be paid was fixed permanently. It was felt that this would ensure a regular flow of revenue into the Company’s coffers and at the same time encourage the zamindars to invest in improving the land.

→ The problem

The Permanent Settlement created problems. Company officials soon discovered that the zamindars were in fact not investing in the improvement of land. The revenue that had been fixed was so high that the zamindars found it difficult to pay. Anyone who failed to pay the revenue lost his zamindari.
The prices in the market rose and cultivation slowly expanded. Hence, there is an increment in the income of the zamindars but no gain for the Company since it could not increase a revenue demand that had been fixed permanently.
As long as the zamindars could give out the land to tenants and get rent, they were not interested in improving the land.
On the other hand, in the villages, the cultivator found the system extremely oppressive. The rent he paid to the zamindar was high and his right on the land was insecure.

→ A new system is devised

By the early nineteenth century many of the Company officials were convinced that the system of revenue had to be changed again.
An Englishman called Holt Mackenzie devised the new system which came into effect in 1822, in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency (most of this area is now in Uttar Pradesh).
The estimated revenue of each plot within a village was added up to calculate the revenue that each village (mahal) had to pay. This demand was to be revised periodically, not permanently fixed.
The charge of collecting the revenue and paying it to the Company was given to the village headman, rather than the zamindar. This system came to be known as the mahalwari settlement.

→ The Munro system

Down in south, the similar idea of permanent settlement moved away. The new system that was devised came to be known as the ryotwar or ryotwari.
It was tried on a small scale by Captain Alexander Read in some of the areas that were taken over by the Company after the wars with Tipu Sultan. Subsequently developed by Thomas Munro, this system was gradually extended all over south India.
Munro thought that the British should act as paternal father figures protecting the lyots under their charge.

→ All was not well
Driven by the desire to increase the income from land, revenue officials fixed too high a revenue demands. Peasants were unable to pay, ryots fled the countryside, and villages became deserted in many regions.

→ Crops for Europe

The British also realised that the countryside could not only yield revenue, it could also grow the crops that Europe required.
The British persuaded or forced cultivators in various parts of India to produce other crops: jute in Bengal, tea in Assam, sugarcane in the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh), wheat in Punjab, cotton in Maharashtra and Punjab, rice in Madras.

→ Does colour have a history?

A kalamkari print was created by weavers of Andhra Pradesh in India. On the other hand, a floral cotton print was designed and produced by William Morris, a famous poet and artist of nineteenth-century Britain.
There is one thing common in the two prints: both used a rich blue colour commonly called indigo.
The blue prints was produced from a plant called indigo.

→ Why the demand for Indian indigo?

The indigo plant grows primarily in the tropics. By the thirteenth century, Indian indigo was being used by cloth manufacturers in Italy, France and Britain to dye cloth.
Only small amounts of Indian indigo reached the European market and its price was very high. European cloth manufacturers therefore had to depend on another plant called woad to make violet and blue dyes.
However, cloth dyers preferred indigo as a dye. Indigo produced a rich blue colour, whereas the dye from woad was pale and dull.
By the seventeenth century, European cloth producers persuaded their governments to relax the ban on indigo import.
Indigo plantations also came up in many parts of North America.
The French began cultivating indigo in St Domingue in the Caribbean Islands, the Portuguese in Brazil, the English in Jamaica, and the Spanish in Venezuela.
By the end of the eighteenth century, the demand for Indian indigo grew further.
While the demand for indigo increased, its existing supplies from the West Indies and America collapsed for a variety of reasons.
Between 1783 and 1789 the production of indigo in the world fell by half.

→ Britain turns to India

From the last decades of the eighteenth-century indigo cultivation in Bengal expanded rapidly and Bengal indigo came to dominate the world market.
As the indigo trade grew, commercial agents and officials of the Company began investing in indigo production.

→ How was indigo cultivated?

There were two main systems of indigo cultivation nij and ryoti.
Within the system of nij cultivation, the planter produced indigo in lands that he directly controlled.

→ The problem with nij cultivation

The planters found it difficult to expand the area under nij cultivation.
Indigo could be cultivated only on fertile lands and these were all already densely populated.
They attempted to lease in the land around the indigo factory, and evict the peasants
from the area. But this always led to conflicts and tension.
Nor was labour easy to mobilise and large numbers of labours required. And labour was needed precisely at a time when peasants were usually busy with their rice cultivation.
Nij cultivation on a large scale also required many ploughs and bullocks.
One bigha of indigo cultivation required two ploughs.
Till the late nineteenth century, planters were therefore reluctant to expand the area under nij cultivation.
Less than 25 per cent of the land producing indigo was under this system.
The rest was under an alternative mode of cultivation i.e.; the ryoti system.

→ Indigo on the land of ryots

Under the ryoti system, the planters forced the ryots to sign a contract, an agreement (satta).
At times they pressurised the village headmen to sign the contract on behalf of the ryots.
The planter provided the seed and the drill, while the cultivators prepared the soil, sowed the seed and looked after the crop.
When the crop was delivered to the planter after the harvest, a new loan was given to the ryot, and the cycle started all over again.
The price peasants got for the indigo they produced was very low and the cycle of loans never ended.
The planters usually insisted that indigo be cultivated on the best soils in which peasants preferred to cultivate rice because indigo had deep roots and it exhausted the soil rapidly. After an indigo harvest the land could not be sown with rice.

→ The “Blue Rebellion” and After

In March 1859, thousands of ryots in Bengal refused to grow indigo.
As the rebellion spread, ryots refused to pay rents to the planters and attacked indigo factories armed with swords and spears, bows and arrows. Women turned up to fight with pots, pans and kitchen implements.
In many villages, headmen who had been forced to sign indigo contracts, mobilised the indigo peasants and fought pitched battles with the lathiyals.
In other places even the zamindars went around villages urging the ryots to resist the planters.
After the Revolt of 1857 the British government was particularly worried about the possibility of another popular rebellion.
When in Barasat, the magistrate Ashley Eden issued a notice stating that ryots would not be compelled to accept indigo contracts, word went around that Queen Victoria had declared that indigo need not be sown.
The intellectuals from Calcutta wrote about the misery of the ryots, the tyranny of the planters, and the horrors of the indigo system.
Worried by the rebellion, the government brought in the military to protect the planters from assault, and set up the Indigo Commission to enquire into the system of indigo production.
After the revolt, indigo production collapsed in Bengal. But the planters now shifted their operation to Bihar.
Mahatma Gandhi’s visit in 1917 marked the beginning of the Champaran movement against the indigo planters.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 9 Public Facilities

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 9 Public Facilities

→ Water and the People of Chennai:
Different situations are mentioned about the water supply and the people of Chennai.

→ Water as Part of the Fundamental Right to Life:

Water is essential for life and for good health.
India has one of the largest number of cases of diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera.
The Constitution of India recognises the right to water as being a part of the Right to Life under Article 21.
There should be universal access to water.
There have been several court cases in which both the High Courts and the Supreme Court have held that the right to safe drinking water is a Fundamental Right.

→ Public Facilities:

There are things like electricity, public transport, schools and colleges that are also necessary. These are known as public facilities.
The important characteristic of a public facility is that once it is provided, its benefits can be shared by many people.

→ The Government’s Role:

One of the most important functions of the government is to ensure that these public facilities are made available to everyone.
In most of the public facilities, there is no profit to be had.
Private companies provide public facilities but at a price that only some people can afford.
This facility is not available to all at an affordable rate.
Public facilities relate to people’s basic needs.
The Right to Life that the Constitution guarantees is for all persons living in this country. The responsibility to provide public facilities, therefore, must be that of the government.

→ Water Supply to Chennai: Is it Available to All?

While there is no doubt that public facilities should be made available to all, in reality we see that there is a great shortage of such facilities.
Water supply in Chennai is marked by shortages.
The burden of shortfalls in water supply falls mostly on the poor.
The middle class when faced with water shortages are able to cope through a variety
of private means such as digging borewells, buying water from tankers and using bottled water for drinking.
Apart from the availability of water, access to ‘safe’ drinking water is also available to some and this depends on what one can afford.
In reality, therefore, it seems that it is only people with money who have the right to water – a far cry from the goal of universal access to ‘sufficient and safe’ water.

→ In Search of Alternatives:

A similar scenario of shortages and acute crisis during the summer months is common to other cities of India.
The supply of water per person in an urban area in India should be about 135 litres per day (about seven buckets) – a standard set by the Urban Water Commission.
Whereas people in slums have to make do with less than 20 litres a day per person (one bucket), people living in luxury hotels may consume as much as 1,600 litres (80 buckets) of water per day.
A shortage of municipal water is often taken as a sign of failure of the government.
Within India, there are cases of success in government water departments, though these are few in number and limited to certain areas of their work.
It has also used the services of private companies for transporting and distributing water but the government water supply department decides the rate for water tankers and gives them permission to operate. Hence, they are called ‘on contract’.

→ Conclusion:

Public facilities relate to our basic needs and the Indian Constitution recognises the right to water, heath, education, etc., as being a part of the Right to Life.
One of the major roles of the government is to ensure adequate public facilities for everyone.
There is a shortage in supply and there are inequalities in distribution.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes History Chapter 2 From Trade to Territory: The Company Establishes Power

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes History Chapter 2 From Trade to Territory: The Company Establishes Power

→ Aurangzeb was the last of the powerful Mughal rulers. He established control over a very large part of the territory that is now known as India.

After his death in 1707, many Mughal subadars (governors) and big zamindars began asserting their authority and establishing regional kingdoms.
By the second half of the eighteenth century, however, a new power was emerging on the political horizon – the British.

→ East India Company Comes East

The East India Company in 1600, acquired a charter from the ruler of England, Queen Elizabeth I, granting it the sole right to trade with the East.
Mercantile trading companies in those days made profit primarily by excluding competition, so that they could buy cheap and sell dear.
The royal charter, however, could not prevent other European powers from entering the Eastern markets.
The Portuguese had already established their presence in the western coast of India and had their base in Goa. It was Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, who had discovered this sea route to India in 1498.
In the early, seventeenth century, the Dutch arrived and soon after them the French came.
The problem was that all the companies were interested in buying the same things. The fine qualities of cotton and silk produced in India had a big market in Europe. Pepper, cloves, cardamom and cinnamon too were in great demand.
The only way the trading companies could flourish was by eliminating rival competitors. The urge to secure markets led to fierce battles between the trading companies.

→ East India Company begins trade in Bengal

The first English factory was set up on the banks of the river Hugh in 1651.
This was the base from which the Company’s traders known at that time as “factors” operated.
By 1696 it began building a fort around the settlement. Two years later it bribed Mughal officials into giving the Company zamindari rights over three villages.
It also persuaded the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to issue a farman granting the Company the right to trade duty free.
One of the cities were Kalikata, presently known as Kolkata or Calcutta)earlier).

→ How trade led to battles

Through the early eighteenth century the conflict between the Company and the nawabs of Bengal intensified.
Murshid Quli Khan was followed by Alivardi Khan and then Sirajuddaulah as the Nawab of Bengal. Each one of them was a strong ruler. They refused to grant the Company concessions, demanded large tributes for the Company’s right to trade, denied it any right to mint coins and stopped it from extending its fortifications.
The Company on its part declared that the unjust demands of the local officials were ruining the trade of the Company, and trade could flourish only if the duties were removed.
The conflicts led to confrontations and finally culminated in the famous Battle of Plassey.

→ The Battle of Plassey

The Company was worried about the power of Sirajuddaulah became the nawab of Bengal and keen on a puppet ruler who would willingly give trade concessions and other privileges.
After negotiations failed, the Nawab marched with 30,000 soldiers to the English factory at Kassimbazar, captured the Company officials, locked the warehouse, disarmed all Englishmen, and blockaded English ships. Then he marched to Calcutta to establish control over the Company’s fort there.
In 1757, Robert Clive led the Company’s army against Sirajuddaulah at Plassey.
One of the main reasons for the defeat of the Nawab was that the forces led by Mir
Jafar who was one of Sirajuddaulah’s commanders, never fought the battle.
Clive had managed to secure his support by promising to make him nawab after crushing Sirajuddaulah.
The Battle of Plassey became famous because it was the first major victory the Company won in India.
After the defeat at Plassey, Sirajuddaulah was assassinated and Mir Jafar made the nawab. The Company was still unwilling to take over the responsibility of administration. Its prime objective was the expansion of trade.
When Mir Jafar protested, the Company deposed him and installed Mir Qasim in his place. When Mir Qasim complained, he in turn was defeated in a battle fought at Buxar in 1764 and driven out of Bengal, and Mir Jafar was reinstalled.
They wanted more territories and more revenue. By the time Mir Jafar died in 1765, the mood of the Company had changed. Having failed to work with puppet nawabs, Clive declared: “We must indeed become nawabs ourselves.”
Finally, in 1765 the Mughal emperor appointed the Company as the Diwan of the provinces of Bengal.
From the early eighteenth century its trade with India had expanded. But it had to buy most of the goods in India with gold and silver imported from Britain.
Revenues from India could finance Company expenses. These revenues could be used to purchase cotton and silk textiles in India, maintain Company troops, and meet the cost of building the Company fort and offices at Calcutta.

→ Company officials become ‘nabobs’

Each company servant began to have visions of living like nawabs.
After the Battle of Plassey the actual nawabs of Bengal were forced to give land and vast sums of money as personal gifts to Company officials.
Robert Clive was appointed Governor of Bengal in 1764, he was asked to remove corruption in Company administration but he was himself cross-examined in 1772 by the British Parliament.
The Company officials who managed to return with wealth led flashy lives and flaunted their riches. They were called “nabobs” means an anglicised version of the Indian word nawab.

→ Company Rule Expands

The Company used a variety of political, economic and diplomatic methods to extend its influence before annexing an Indian kingdom.
After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company appointed Residents in Indian states. They were political or commercial agents and their job was to serve and Anther the interests of the Company.
When Richard Wellesley was Governor-General (1798-1805), the Nawab of Awadh was forced to give over half of his territory to the Company in 1801 as he failed to pay for the “subsidiary forces”.
Hyderabad was also forced to cede territories on similar grounds.

→ Tipu Sultan – ‘The Tiger of Mysore’

Mysore had grown in strength under the leadership of powerful rulers like Haidar Ali (ruled from 1761 to 1782) and his famous son Tipu Sultan (ruled from 1782 to 1799).
In 1785, Tipu Sultan stopped the export of sandalwood, pepper and cardamom through the ports of his kingdom, and disallowed local merchants from trading with the Company.
He also established a close relationship with the French in India, and modernized his army with their help.
Four wars were fought with Mysore (1767¬69, 1780-84, 1790-92 and 1799). Only in the last, the Battle of Seringapatam did the Company ultimately win a victory.

→ War with the Marathas

With the defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Marathas’ dream of ruling from Delhi was shattered.
They were divided into many states under different chiefs (sardars) belonging to dynasties such as Sindhia, Holkar, Gaikwad and Bhonsle.
These chiefs were held together in a confederacy under a Peshwa (Principal Minister) who became its effective military and administrative head based in Pune.
Mahadji Sindhia and Nana Phadnis were two famous Maratha soldiers and statesmen of the late eighteenth century.
In the first war that ended in 1782 with the Treaty of Salbai, there was no clear victor. The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05) was fought on different fronts, resulting in the British gaining Orissa and the territories north of the Yamuna river including Agra and Delhi. Finally, the Third Anglo-Maratha War of 1817-19 crushed Maratha power.

→ The claim to paramountcy

Under Lord Hastings (Governor-General from 1813 to 1823), a new policy of “paramountcy” was initiated. Now the Company claimed that its authority was paramount or supreme, hence its power was greater than that of Indian states.
When the British tried to annex the small state of Kitoor (in Karnataka today), Rani Channamma took to arms and led an anti- British resistance movement. She was arrested in 1824 and died in prison in 1829.
But Rayanna, a poor chowkidar of Sangoli in Kitoor, carried on the resistance. With popular support he destroyed many British camps and records. He was caught and hanged by the British in 1830.
British fought a prolonged war with Afghanistan between 1838 and 1842 and established indirect Company rule there. Sind was taken over in 1843.
But the presence of Maharaja Ranjit Singh held back the Company. After his death in 1839, two prolonged wars were fought with the Sikh kingdom. Ultimately, in 1849, Punjab was annexed.

→ The Doctrine of Lapse

Lord Dalhousie was the Governor-General from 1848 to 1856. He devised a policy that came to be known as the Doctrine of Lapse.
The doctrine declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir his kingdom would “lapse”, and become part of Company territory. One kingdom after another was annexed simply by applying this doctrine – Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853) and Jhansi (1854).
Enraged by the humiliating way in which the Nawab of Awadh was deposed, the people of Awadh joined the great revolt that broke out in 1857.

→ Setting up a New Administration

Warren Hastings (Governor-General from 1773 to 1785) was one of the many important figures who played a significant role in the expansion of Company power.
British territories were broadly divided into administrative units called Presidencies. There were three Presidencies: Bengal, Madras and Bombay.
Each was ruled by a Governor. The supreme head of the administration was the Governor-General.
Each district was to have two courts – a criminal court (faujdari adalat) and a civil court (diwani adalat).
The criminal courts were still under a qazi and a mufti but under the supervision of the collectors.
A major problem was that the Brahman pandits gave different interpretations of local laws based on different schools of the dharmashastra.
In 1775, eleven pandits were asked to compile a digest of Hindu laws. N.B. Halhed translated this digest into English.
By 1778, a code of Muslim laws was also compiled for the benefit of European judges.
The principal figure in an Indian district was the Collector. As the title suggests, his main job was to collect revenue and taxes and maintain law and order in his district with the help of judges, police officers and darogas.

→ The Company army

The Mughal army was mainly composed of cavalry (sawars – trained soldiers on horseback) and infantry, paidal (foot) soldiers. They were given training in archery (teer-andazi) and the use of the sword.
The East India Company adopted the method of recruiting peasants when it began recruitment for its own army, which came to be known as the sepoy army.
As warfare technology changed from the 1820s, the cavalry requirements of the Company’s army declined because the British empire was fighting in Burma, Afghanistan and Egypt where soldiers were armed with muskets and matchlocks.
In the early nineteenth century the British began to develop a uniform military culture.

→ Conclusion

Thus, the East India Company was transformed from a trading company to a territorial colonial power.
Steamships reduced the journey time to three weeks enabling more Britishers and their families to come to a far-off country like India.
By 1857, the Company came to exercise direct rule over about 63 per cent of the territory and 78 per cent of the population of the Indian subcontinent.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Human Resource

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Human Resource

→ Human resource is the ultimate resource. Healthy, educated and motivated people develop resources as per their requirements.

→ Distribution of Population:

The pattern of population distribution is the way in which people are spread across the earth surface.
The distribution of population in the world is extremely uneven.
Almost three-quarters of the world’s people live in two continents Asia and Africa.
In just 10 countries, sixty per cent of the world’s people stay. All of them have more than a 100 million people.

→ Density of Population:
The number of people living in a unit area of the earth’s surface is called population density. It is normally expressed as per square km.

→ Factors Affecting Distribution of Population Geographical factors:

Topography: People always prefer to live on plains rather than mountains and plateaus because these areas are suitable for farming, manufacturing and service activities.
Climate: People usually avoid extreme climates that are very hot or very cold such as Sahara desert, polar regions of Russia, Canada and Antarctica.
Soil: Fertile soils provide suitable land for agriculture. Fertile plains are densely populated.
Water: The river valleys of the world are densely populated while deserts have spare population.
Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits are more populated.
Social Cultural and Economic Factors
Social: Areas of better housing, education and health facilities are more densely populated.
Cultural: Places with religion or cultural significance attract people.
Economic: Industrial areas provide employment opportunities.

→ Population Change:

Population change refers to change in the number of people during a specific time.
The world population has not been stable. This is actually due to changes in the number of births and deaths.
The main reason for the growth of population was that with better food supplies and medicine, deaths were reducing, while the number of births still remained fairly high.
Births are usually measured using the birth rate, i.e., the number of live births per 1,000 people.
Deaths are usually measured using the death rate, i.e., the number of deaths per 1,000 people.
Migrations is the movement of people in and out of an area.
The difference between the birth rate and the death rate of a country is called the natural growth rate. It is one of the reasons for population increase.
Migration is another way by which population size changes.
The general trend of international migrations is from the less developed nations to the more developed nations in search of better employment opportunities.

→ Patterns of Population Change:
Rates of population growth vary across the world. Although, the world’s total population is rising rapidly, not all countries are experiencing this growth.

→ Population Composition:

Population composition refers to the structure of the population.
The composition of population helps us to know how many are males or females, which age group they belong to, how educated they are and what type of occupations they are employed in, what their income levels and health conditions are and many more things.
The shape of the population pyramid tells the story of the people living in that particular country.
The population pyramid also tells us how many dependents there are in a country.
Skilled, spirited and hopeful young people endowed with a positive outlook are the future of any nation.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Industries

August 30, 2024August 29, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Industries

→ Secondary activities or manufacturing change raw materials into products of more value to people. Industry is an economic activity that is concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals or the provision of services.

→ Classification of Industries:
On the basis of raw materials, size and ownership, industries are classified.

→ Raw Materials:

Depending upon the type of raw materials used, they are classified accordingly. Industries may be agro-based, mineral based, marine based and forest based.
Plant and animal based products are used as their raw materials in Agro-based industries.
The primary industries that use mineral ores as their raw materials in Mineral based industries.
Marine based industries use products from the sea and oceans as raw materials.
Forest based industries utilise forest produce as raw materials.

→ Size:

Size depicts the amount of capital invested, number of people employed and the volume of production.
Industries can be classified into small scale and large scale industries based on its size.
In a small scale industry, the products are manufactured by hand, by the artisans.
In large scale industries, investment of capital is higher and the technology used is superior.

→ Ownership:

Industries can be classified into private sector, public sector or state owned, joint sector and cooperative sector.
Private-sector industries are owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals.
The public sector industries are owned and operated by the government.
Joint sector industries are owned and operated by the state and individuals or a group of individuals.
Co-operative sector industries are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers or both.

→ Factors Affecting Location of Industries:

The factors affecting the location of industries are the availability of raw material, land, water, labour, power, capital, transport and market.
Industrialisation often leads to development and growth of towns and cities.

→ Industrial System:

An industrial system consists of inputs, processes and outputs.
The inputs are the raw materials, labour and costs of land, transport, power and other infrastructure.
The processes include a wide range of activities that convert the raw material into finished products.
The outputs are the end product and the income earned from it.

→ Industrial Regions:

Industrial regions emerge when a number of industries locate close to each other and share the benefits of their closeness.
Major industrial regions of the world are eastern North America, western and central Europe, eastern Europe and eastern Asia.
India has several industrial regions such as Mumbai-Pune cluster, Bangalore-Tamil Nadu region, Hugh region, Ahmedabad- Baroda region, Chhota Nagpur industrial belt, Vishakhapatnam-Guntur belt, Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut region and the Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram industrial cluster.

→ Distribution of Major Industries:

The world’s major industries are the iron and steel industry, the textile industry and the information technology industry.
The countries in which iron and steel industry is located are Germany, USA, China, Japan and Russia.
Textile industry is mainly concentrated in India, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan.
The major hubs of information technology industry is the Silicon Valley of Central California and the Bangalore region of India.

→ Iron and Steel Industry:

Iron and steel industry is a feeder industry whose products are used as raw material for other industries.
Steel is tough and it can easily be shaped, cut, or made into wire.
Alloys give steel unusual hardness, toughness, or ability to resist rust.
Steel is often called the backbone of modem industry.
Most of the things we use is either made of iron or steel or has been made with tools and machinery of these metals.
Before 1800 A.D. iron and steel industry was located where raw materials, power supply and running water were easily available. Later the ideal location for the industry was near coal fields and close to canals and railways. After 1950, iron and steel industry began to be located on large areas of flat land near sea ports.
In India, iron and steel industry has developed taking advantage of raw materials, cheap labour, transport and market.
All the important steel producing centres such as Bhilai, Durgapur, Bumpur, Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro are situated in West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh. Bhadravati and Vijay Nagar in Karnataka, Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, Salem in Tamil Nadu.

→ Jamshedpur:

Before 1947, there was only one iron and steel plant in the country – Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) and it was privately owned.
After independence, the government took the initiative and set up several iron and steel plants.
Jamshedpur is the most conveniently situated iron and steel centre in the country.
In Jamshedpur, several other industrial plants were set up after TISCO. They produce chemicals, locomotive parts, agricultural equipment, machinery, tinplate, cable and wire.
Almost all sectors of the Indian industry depend heavily on the iron and steel industry for their basic infrastructure. It opened the doors to rapid industrial development in India.

→ Pittsburgh:

It is an important steel city of the United States of America. The steel industry at Pittsburgh enjoys locational advantages.
The Pittsburgh area has many factories other than steel mills. These use steel as their raw material to make many different products such as railroad equipment, heavy machinery and rails.
Today, very few of the large steel mills are in Pittsburgh itself.

→ Cotton Textile Industry:

Cotton, wool, silk, jute, flax have been used for making cloth and weaving cloth from yam is an ancient art.
Fibres are the raw material of textile industry. Fibres can be natural or man-made.
Natural fibres are obtained from wool, silk, cotton, linen and jute. Man-made fibres include nylon, polyester, acrylic and rayon.
The cotton textile industry is one of the oldest industries in the world.
In 18th century power looms facilitated the development of cotton textile industry, first in Britain and later in other parts of the world.
The important producers of cotton textiles are India, China, Japan and the USA.
Before the British rule, Indian hand-spun and handwoven cloth already had a wide market.
The Muslins of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam, Calicos of Calicut and Gold-wrought cotton of
Burhanpur, Surat and Vadodara were known worldwide for their quality and design.
The production of handwoven cotton textile was expensive and time consuming.
The first successful mechanised textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854.
Initially this industry flourished in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat because of favourable humid climate.
Nowadays, it can be created artificially, and some of the other important centres are Coimbatore, Kanpur, Chennai, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Kolkata, Ludhiana, Puducherry and Panipat.

→ Ahmedabad:

The first mill was established in 1859.
It soon became the second largest textile city of India, after Mumbai.
Ahmedabad was often referred to as the ‘Manchester of India’.
Ahmedabad is situated very close to cotton growing area.
The densely populated states of Gujarat and Maharashtra provide both skilled and semi-skilled labour.
In the recent years, Ahmedabad textile mills have been having facing some problems. This is due to the emergence of new textile centres in the country as well as non- upgradation of machines and technology in the mills of Ahmedabad.

→ Osaka:

It is an important textile centre of Japan and also known as the ‘Manchester of Japan’.
The textile industry at Osaka depends completely upon imported raw materials.
Cotton is imported from Egypt, India, China and USA.
The finished product is mostly exported and has a good market due to good quality and low price.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Mineral and Power Resources

August 30, 2024August 28, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 8th Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Mineral and Power Resources

→ A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that has a definite chemical composition.

Minerals are not evenly distributed over the areas. They are concentrated in a particular area or rock formations.
Some minerals are found in regions which are not easily accessible such as the Arctic ocean bed and Antarctica.
Minerals are created by natural processes without any human interference. On the basis of their physical properties such as colour, density, hardness and chemical property such as solubility, they are classified and identified.

→ Types of Minerals:

On earth, there are over three thousand different minerals.
On the basis of composition, minerals are categorised as:
- Metallic minerals
- non-metallic minerals.
Metals in raw form are present in metallic minerals.
The hard substances that conduct heat and electricity and have a characteristic lustre or shine are known as metals. Iron ore, bauxite, manganese ore are some examples.

→ Metallic minerals are of two types:

Ferrous minerals are such as iron ore, manganese and chromites contain iron.
A non-ferrous mineral does not contain iron but may contain some other metal such as gold, silver, copper or lead.

→ Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals.

Limestone, mica and gypsum are non- metallic minerals.
The mineral fuels like coal and petroleum are also non-metallic minerals.
Minerals can be extracted by mining, drilling or quarrying.
Mining is the process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s surface.

→ Mining is categorised into two:

Open cast mining
Shaft mining

→ In open-cast mining, minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface layer.

In shaft mining, deep bores known as shafts, have to be made to reach mineral deposits that lie at great depths.
Petroleum and natural gas occur deep below the earth’s surface. Drilling is done to take them out and deep wells are bored.
Quarrying is the method in which minerals that lie near the surface are simply dug out.

→ Distribution of Minerals:

Metallic minerals are found in igneous and metamorphic rock formations that form large plateaus.
Iron-ore in north Sweden, copper and nickel deposits in Ontario, Canada, iron, nickel, chromites and platinum in South Africa are some of the examples of minerals found in these rocks.
Non-metallic minerals are found in sedimentary rock formations of plains and young fold mountains contain such as limestone.
Limestone deposits of Caucasus region of France, manganese deposits of Georgia and Ukraine and phosphate beds of Algeria are some examples. Coal and petroleum, the mineral fuels are also found in the sedimentary strata.

→ Asia:

China and India have large iron ore deposits. The continent produces more than half of the world’s tin.
The world’s leading tin producers are China, Malaysia and Indonesia.
China is in the leading position in production of lead, antimony and tungsten.
Asia also has deposits of manganese, bauxite, nickel, zinc and copper.

→ Europe:

Europe is the leading producer of iron-ore in the world.
Russia, Ukraine, Sweden and France have the large deposits of iron ore.
In eastern Europe and European Russia, minerals found are copper, lead, zinc, manganese and nickel.

→ North America:

The mineral deposits are situated in three zones:
- the Canadian region north of the Great Lakes,
- the Appalachian region and
- the mountain ranges of the west.
In the Canadian Shield Region, iron ore, nickel, gold, uranium and copper are found.
In the Appalachians region, coal is found.
In Western Cordilleras, vast deposits of copper, lead, zinc, gold and silver are found.

→ South America:

The largest producer of high grade iron-ore in the world is Brazil.
The leading producers of copper are Chile and Peru.
Among the world’s largest producers of tin are Brazil and Bolivia.
In Venezuela, Argentina, Chile, Peru and Columbia, mineral oil is found.

→ Africa:

The world’s largest producer of diamonds, gold and platinum is Africa.
A major portion of the world’s gold is produced by South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zaire.
Copper, iron ore, chromium, uranium, cobalt and bauxite are found here.
In Nigeria, Libya and Angola, oil is found.

→ Australia:

The largest producer of bauxite in the world is Australia.
The largest deposits of gold is found in Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie areas of western Australia.
It is a leading producer of gold, diamond, iron ore, tin and nickel.

→ Antarctica:

Iron ore, gold, silver and oil are present in commercial quantities.
Sufficient and significant amount of deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains and iron near the Prince Charles Mountains of East Antarctica is predicted.

→ Uses of Minerals:

Minerals are used in many industries in different forms.
Minerals which are used for gems and jewellery are usually hard. These are later processed.
Copper is used in almost everything from coins to pipes.
Silicon is used in the computer industry and is obtained from quartz.
Aluminum obtained from its ore.
In automobiles, airplanes, bottling industry, buildings and even in kitchen cookware, bauxite is used.

→ Conservation of Minerals:

Minerals are a non-renewable resource.
In the process of mining, it is necessary to reduce the wastage.
Another way in which the mineral resources can be conserved is recycling of metals.

→ Power Resources:

We need power or energy for industry, agriculture, transport, communication and defense.
Power resources may be broadly categorised as:
- conventional resources
- non-conventional resources.

→ Conventional Sources:

Those energy which have been in common use for a long time are known as the conventional energy.
The two main conventional energy sources are:
- Firewood
- Fossil fuels

→ Firewood:

More than fifty per cent of the energy used by villagers comes from firewood in our country.
It is mainly used for cooking and heating.

→ Fossil Fuel:

Fossil fuels are the fuel which are formed by the natural processes.
For millions of years, remains of plants and animals which were buried under the earth got converted by the heat and pressure into fossil fuels.
Fossil fuel such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are the main sources of conventional energy.

→ Coal:

Electricity from coal is known as thermal power.
Coal is also known as Buried Sunshine because the coal which we are using today was formed millions of years ago when giant ferns and swamps got buried under the layers of earth.
In India, the coal producing areas are Raniganj, Jharia, Dhanbad and Bokaro in Jharkhand.
The leading coal producers of the world are China, USA, Germany, Russia, South Africa and France.

→ Petroleum:

A thick black liquid is known as Petroleum. Since they are very valuable, petroleum and its derivatives are called Black Gold.
Petroleum is found between the layers of rocks and is drilled from oil fields which is located in off-shore and coastal areas. Then sent to refineries which process the crude oil and produce a variety of products such as diesel, petrol, kerosene, wax, plastics and lubricants.
The chief petroleum producing countries are Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Qatar.
The leading producers in India are Digboi in Assam, Bombay High in Mumbai and the deltas of Krishna and Godavari rivers.

→ Natural Gas:

Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is brought to the surface. Very few countries in the world have sufficient amount of natural gas reserves of their own.
Russia, Norway, UK and the Netherlands are the major producers of natural gas. In India, Jaisalmer, Krishna Godavari delta, Tripura and some areas off shore in Mumbai have natural gas resources.
The consumption of fossil fuels has increased which led to their depletion at an alarming rate. The toxic and poisonous pollutants released from burning these fuels are major cause for concern.

→ Hydel Power:

Rainwater or river water stored in dams produce electricity by a specific method. This electricity is known as Hydro electricity.
The water discharged after the generation of electricity is used for irrigation. The world’s electricity is produced by hydel power is one fourth.
Paraguay, Norway, Brazil, and China are the leading producers of hydroelectricity.
In India, some important hydel power stations are Bhakra Nangal, Gandhi Sagar, Nagarjun Sagar and Damodar valley projects.

→ Non-Conventional Sources of Energy:
There is need for using non-conventional sources such as solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy which are renewable because the increasing use of fossil fuels is leading to its shortage.

→ Solar Energy:

Solar energy trapped from the sun can be used in solar cells to produce electricity. Many of these cells are joined into solar panels to generate power for heating and lighting purpose.
Solar energy is also used in solar heaters, solar cookers, solar dryers and traffic signals.

→ Wind Energy:

Wind mills have been used for grinding grain and lifting water since ancient times. In modem time, the wind mills with high speed winds rotate the wind mill which is connected to a generator to produce electricity.
Windfarms are found in Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, UK, USA and Spain which are known for their wind energy production.

→ Nuclear Power:

Nuclear power is obtained from energy stored in the nuclei of atoms of naturally occurring radioactive elements such as uranium and thorium.
Rajasthan and Jharkhand have large deposits of Uranium. Thorium is found in large quantities in the Monozite sands of Kerala.
In India, the nuclear power stations are situated in Kalpakkam in Tamilnadu, Tarapur in Maharashtra, Ranapratap Sagar near Kota in Rajasthan, Narora in Uttar Pradesh and Kaiga in Karnataka.

→ Geothermal Energy:

Geothermal energy is the heat energy which is obtained from the earth. This heat energy can be used to generate power.
USA has the world’s largest geothermal power plants followed by New Zealand, Iceland, Philippines and Central America. In India, geothermal plants are situated in Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh and Puga Valley in Ladakh.

→ Tidal Energy:

Tidal energy is the energy generated from tides.
Electricity is produced during high tide the energy of the tides is used to turn the turbine installed in the dam.
Russia, France and the Gulf of Kachchh in India have huge tidal mill farms.

→ Biogas:

Biogas is a gaseous fuel made of organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal dung and kitchen waste. These wastes are converted into the gaseous fuel.
The organic waste is decomposed by bacteria in biogas digesters to emit biogas which is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide.

JAC Class 8 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Solutions Geography Chapter 4 Air

September 6, 2024August 5, 2024 by Prasanna

JAC Board Class 7th Social Science Solutions Geography Chapter 4 Air

JAC Class 7th Geography Air InText Questions and Answers

Page 21

Question 1.
Is global warming a serious issue in today’s world?
Answer:
Concern about climate change is much less pervasive in the United States, China and Russia than among other leading nations. Just 44% in the U.S. and Russia, and even fewer in China (30%), consider global warming to be a very serious problem.

Page 23

Question 2.
For ten days note down weather report from a local newspaper and observe the changes occurring in the weather.
Answer:
Students need to do it by their own.

JAC Class 7th Geography Air Textbook Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Answer the following questions.
(i) What is atmosphere?
Answer:
Atmosphere is a huge layer of air that surrounds the earth. It shields and guard us from the harmful rays of the sun. rays of the sun. rays of the sun.

(ii) Which two gases make the bulk of the atmosphere?
Answer:
The two gases which make the bulk of the atmosphere are nitrogen (78% ) and oxygen (21%).

(iii)
Which gas creates greenhouse effect in the atmosphere?
Answer:
The gas which creates greenhouse effect in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide.

(iv) What is weather?
Answer:
An hour to hour, day to day condition of the atmosphere is called as the weather. It is the total atmospheric conditions of a particular place at a particular time regarding temperature, air pressure, clouds, wind, humidity, etc.

(v) Name three types of rainfall?
Answer:
Three types of rainfall are:

Convectional rainfall
Orographic rainfall
Cyclonic rainfall

(vi) What is air pressure?
Answer:
Air pressure is the pressure which is exerted by the weight of air on the earth’s surface.

Tick (√) the correct answer.

Question 2.
(i) Which of the following gases protects us from harmful sun rays?
(a) Carbon dioxide
(b) Nitrogen
(c) Ozone
Answer:
(c) Ozone

(ii) The most important layer of the atmosphere is
(a) Troposphere
(b) Thermosphere
(c) Mesosphere
Answer:
(a) Troposphere

(iii) Which of the following layers of the atmosphere is free from clouds?
(a) Troposphere
(b) Stratosphere
(c) Mesosphere
Answer:
(b) Stratosphere

(iv) As we go up the layers of the atmosphere, the pressure
(a) Increases
(b) Decreases
(c) Remains the same
Answer:
(b) Decreases

(v) When precipitation comes down to the earth in the liquid form, it is called
(a) Cloud
(b) Rain
(c) Snow
Answer:
(b) Rain

Question 3.
Match the following.

(i) Trade winds	(a) Incoming solar energy
(ii) Loo	(b) Seasonal wind
(iii) Monsoon	(c) Horizontal movement of Air
(iv)Wind	(d) Layer of ozone gas
	(e) Permanent wind
	(f) Local wind

Answer:

(i) Trade winds	(e) Permanent wind
(ii) Loo	(f) Local wind
(iii) Monsoon	(b) Seasonal wind
(iv) Wind	(c) Horizontal movement of air

Question 4.
Give reasons.

Wet clothes take longer time to dry on a humid day?
Amount of insolation decreases from equator towards poles?

Answer:
1. The air is full of water vapour on a humid day. So, the evaporation is very slow due to low temperature. That’s why, wet clothes take longer time to dry on a humid day.

2. On equator, insolation comes through on vertical rays. So, it covers up less amount of space but more heat is felt when it goes up from equator towards poles and the sun rays become slanting. Though slanting rays heat up more amount of space, the level of hotness is felt less. That’s why, amount of insolation decrease from equator towards poles.

Question 5.
(For Fun)

(i) Solve this crossword puzzle with the help of given clues:

Across:
6. An Indian tree having extraordinary quality of providing oxygen round the clock
8. Gas present in atmosphere occupying only 0.03% by volume
11. Outermost layer of atmosphere
12. Mixture of many gases
14. Life giving gas
15. Air in motion
16. An indian tree valued highly for medicinal properties
18. Gas protecting us from harmful sun rays
19. Low pressure area

Down
1. Amount of water vapour in air
2. Condensation of water vapours around dust particles in atmosphere
3. Example of local wind blowing in summer in northern india
4. Short term changes in atmosphere
5. Precipitation in liquid form
7. Blanket of air around the earth
9. Instrument to measure pressure
10. Incoming solar radiation
13. Reduces visibility in winters
17. It is time when sun is overhead
Answer:

Across:
6. Peepal
11. Exosphere
14. Oxygen
16. Neem
19. Cyclone

Down:
1. Humidity
3. Loo
5. Rain
9. Barometre
10. Insolation
17. Noon
8. Carbon dioxide
12. Air
15. Wind
18. Ozone

(ii) Make a weather calendar for one week. Use pictures or symbols to show different types of weather. You can use more than one symbol in a day, if the weather changes. For example, the sun comes out when rain stops. An example is given below:

Answer:
Hint: Students can do it in this manner.

JAC Class 7th Geography Air Important Question and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1.
In the atmosphere, the most abundant gas is
(a) Oxygen
(b) Carbon dioxide
(c) Nitrogen
(d) Helium
Answer:
(c) Nitrogen

Question 2.
The winds which below constantly throughout the year in a particular direction is known as
(a) Local winds
(b) Seasonal winds
(c) Permanent winds
(d) None of the these
Answer:
(a) Local winds

Question 3.
An hour to hour, day to day condition of the atmosphere is known as
(a) temperature
(b) weather
(c) climate
(d) degree
Answer:
(b) weather

Question 4.
Exosphere is the layer of the atmosphere.
(a) uppermost
(b) middle
(c) lower most
(d) none of these
Answer:
(a) uppermost

Question 5.
The thermosphere extends between
(a) 90 – 370 km
(b) 100 – 350 km
(c) 50 – 300 km
(d) 80 – 400 km
Answer:
(d) 80 – 400 km

Question 6.
The balance of and gets disturbed, if we cut down trees and forests.
(a) oxygen, helium
(b) nitrogen, heiium
(c) oxygen, carbon dioxide
(d) oxygen, nitrogen
Answer:
(c) oxygen, carbon dioxide

Question 7.
The air which we inhale and exhale means breathe exists in the
(a) mesosphere
(b) stratosphere
(c) troposphere
(d) exosphere
Answer:
(c) troposphere

Question 8.
The instrument which measures the temperature is
(a) Barometer
(b) Thermometer
(c) Wind vane
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Thermometer

Question 9.
In the atmosphere, the ozone layer exists in the
(a) Stratosphere
(b) Exosphere
(c) Mesosphere
(d) Troposphere
Answer:
(a) Stratosphere

Question 10.
The other name of greenhouse gas is
(a) oxygen
(b) nitrogen
(c) argon
(d) carbon dioxide
Answer:
(b) nitrogen

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by smog?
Answer:
Smog is the combination of smoke and fog. It generally occurs during winter season.

Question 2.
What will happen if there is very less rainfall?
Answer:
Water scarcity and drought occurs if there is very less rainfall.

Question 3.
What are the various forms of precipitation?
Answer:
Various forms of precipitation are rain,snow, sleet and hail.

Question 4.
Give a word/term for the hot and dry wind of northern plains of India.
Answer: Loo.

Question 5. Air pressure is highest at which area?
Answer:
Air pressure is highest at the sea level

Question 6.
What are the three types of winds?
Answer:
The three types of winds are:

Permanent winds
Seasonal winds
Local winds.

Question 7.
When air is heated, what occurs?
Answer:
Air expands and becomes lighter and goes up when the air is heated.

Question 8.
Ozone layer is important for us. Why?
Answer:
Ozone layer is important for us because it protects and shields us from harmful reactions and effects of the sun rays.

Question 9.
Green plants use carbon dioxide. Why?
Answer:
Green plants use carbon dioxide because it helps them to prepare their food and release oxygen.

Question 10.
What is the consequence and importance of greenhouse gas?
Answer:
The consequence and importance of greenhouse gas is that the earth would have been too cold to live in.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What are the instruments called for the measurement of air pressure and the measurement of amount of rainfall?
Answer:
The instruments are called as barometer for the measurement of air pressure and rain gauge for the measurement of amount of rainfall.

Question 2.
What do you mean by a climate of a place or area?
Answer:
The average weather condition of a place or area for a longer period of time constitutes the climate of a place.

Question 3.
What are permanent winds?
Answer:
Winds which blow constantly throughout the year in a particular direction is called as the permanent winds. The trade wind, westerlies and easterlies are the permanent winds.

Question 4.
What is the role of water vapour?
Answer:
One of the major component of the atmosphere is water vapour and it plays a very important role in climatic changes and results in precipitation.

Question 5.
How many types of pollutants are found in the atmosphere?
Answer:
There are mainly two types of pollutants found in the atmosphere

Gaseous – carbon dioxide and smog
Solid – dust and bacteria

Question 6.
Which ty pe of pressure are exerted by cold and hot air?
Answer:
The air expands when heated up hence becomes lighter and goes up. Cold air is heavy and dense so it tends to go down and sinks. When hot air goes up and rises, from surrounding areas, cold air rushes to fill the gap.

Question 7.
Explain the temperature in cities are much higher than that of the villages.
Answer:
In the cities, we find many high rise buildings. The fnetals and concretes in these buildings and the asaphalt of roads get heated up during the day and this heat is released in the night.The other important cause is that in the cities the crowded buildings trap the warm air and hence raise the temperature of the cities. Therefore, the temperature in cities are much higher than that of the villages.

Question 8.
Poles are covered with snow always. Why?
Answer:
From the equator towards the poles the amount of insolation decreases. Hence, the temperature decreases in the same manner. This is the reason why poles are covered with snow always..

Question 9.
What do you mean by global warming?
Answer:
Global warming happens when the level of carbon dioxide increases in the atmosphere due to factory smoke or car fumes and the heat retained increases the temperature of the earth.

Question 10.
Rainfall is important for us when there is excess rain, what happens?
Answer:
For the survival of animals and plants,rainfall is very important. It actually brings fresh water to the surface of the earth. There is water scarcity and drought like situation when there is less rainfall. And, if there is excess rainfall then floods take place which makes the life very difficult to sustain. Many things get damaged such as crops, houses, etc.

Question 11.
In which manner bacteria help plants use nitrogen?
Answer:
For the plant’s survival, nitrogen is very crucial and important. But plants cannot take nitrogen directly from the atmosphere. Hence, bacteria that lives in the soil and roots of some plants take nitrogen from air and changes its form so that the plant can use it.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the different layers of the atmosphere.
Answer:
The atmosphere has five different layers. They are:

Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Exosphere
Troposphere:
All the weather characteristics occurs here such as fog, rainfall, hailstorm. This is the thickest and the most important layer of the atmosphere. It has the average height of 13 km. We also find the air which we breathe.
Stratosphere:
It lies just above the troposphere and presents the ideal conditions for flying aeroplanes. Stratosphere extends upto a height of 50 km. It also contains the ozone gas layer which protects us from harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.
Mesosphere:
It lies above the stratosphere. It extends upto the height of 80 kms. In this layer, meteorites bum up on entering from the space.
Thermosphere:
It lies just above the mesosphere. It extends between 80 400 km. Temperature rises very fast with the increase in height in this layer. In thermosphere, radio waves are transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth.
Exosphere:
This is the last and the uppermost layer with very thin air. Light gases such as helium and hydrogen float -into the space from exosphere.

Question 2.
What are the different constituents of air? How they are important to us?
Answer:
The different constituents of air are oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, ozone, helium, argon and hydrogen. Besides these gases, the air also contains some amount of water vapour and dust particles. They are important to us in many ways:

Oxygen:
It is one of the major gas and second most in volume which makes up about 21% of the air. It is also called as life supporting gas. The atmosphere is continuously recharged and restored of oxygen by green plants through the photosynthesis process and thus keeps a healthy and efficient balance of oxygen in the air. Nitrogen: The total volume of nitrogen is about 78% in the air. The major amount of nitrogen is not utilized in our body system when we inhale. But, plants need nitrogen for the well being and survival.

They absorb it through soil and plant roots. Carbon Dioxide: Carbon dioxide is composed of very small percentage around 0.03% of the air. Then also, it is one of the important gas in maintaining the life cycle of plants on the earth. Carbon dioxide absorbs heat of the sun and warms up the lower atmosphere of the surface of the earth. It is taken by the green plants when human beings and animals release it.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Solutions

JAC Class 7 Social Science Solutions History Chapter 5 Rulers and Buildings

September 4, 2024August 3, 2024 by Prasanna

JAC Board Class 7th Social Science Solutions History Chapter 5 Rulers and Buildings

JAC Class 7th History Rulers and Buildings InText Questions and Answers

Question 1.
What would have been the impact of a building like the Qutb Minar on observers in the thirteenth century?
Answer:
The building like Qutb Minar would have had a huge impact such as that of Taj Mahal or Red Fort today, on the observers in the thirteenth century.

Question 2.
What differences do you notice between the shikharas of the two temples? Can you make out that the shikhara of the Rajarajeshvara temple is twice as high as that of the Kandariya Mahadeva?
Answer: Between the shikharas of the two
temples, the difference of height can be noticed. The shikhara of the Rajarajeshvara temple is twice as high as that of the Kandariya Mahadeva which is easily seen.

Page 63

Question 3.
Compare figures 2(a) and 2(b) with figures 5(a) and 5(b).

Answer:
The figures in 2(a) and 2(b) have apex shape. This is the “trabeate” or “corbelled” style of architecture. The figures 5(a) and 5(b) have curved shape. This is “arcuate” style of architecture.

Question 4.
Describe what the labourers are doing, the tools shown, and the means of carrying stones.
Answer:
The labourers are placing cemented plaster to construct the floor of the fort. Some of them are carrying stones by rolling it by big iron rods or by carrying it on shoulders. Some are assisting the masons. Some horses are also engaged to carry stones and other construction materials.

Question 5.
In what ways do you think the policies of Rajendra I and Mahmud of Ghazni were a product of their times? How were the actions of the two rulers different?
Answer:
The two contemporaries Rajendra I and Mahmud of Ghazni attacked and looted the temples of other states and kings and considered it as a normal activity. Temples showed power and honour for any king and by destroying the temple, the king and his statements were humiliated.

The only difference in the actions of Rajendra I and Mahmud Ghazni was that latter destroyed Hindu temples in order to become a hero of Islam. Whereas, Rajendra I destroyed temples and re-established their deities at the temples that he constructed in his state. Mahmud of Ghazni used the occupied wealth of temples in constructing a capital city for himself.

Page 72

Question 6.
Lookat theillustration and try to identify the bell towers.

Answer:
The bell towers are those wh.ch are constructed in the last floor and stand tallest in the building.

Question 7.
Imagine you are an artisan standing on a tiny wooden platform held together by bamboo and rope fifty metres above the ground. You have to place an inscription under the first balcony of the Qutb Minar. How would you do this?
Answer:
I would stand up on the tinny wooden platform held together by bamboo and rope fifty meters above the ground. And then I would do the work of inscribing by the tools such as hammer and chisel.

JAC Class 7th History Rulers and Buildings Textbook Questions and Answers

( Let’s Recall)

Question 1.
How is the “trabeate” principle of architecture different from “arcuate”?
Answer:
The difference is that in “trabeate” principle of architecture, roofs, doors and windows were made by placing in a horizontal beam across two vertical columns. Whereas, in “arcuate” form, the weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows are carried by arches.

Question 2.
What is a shikhara?
Answer:
The highest roof of a Hindu temple is called a ‘Shikhara’. The Rajarajeshvara temple at Thanjavur had the tallest shikhara among the temples of its time. Constructing it was not easy because there were no cranes in those days and the ninety tonne stone for the top of the shikhara was too heavy to lift manually.

Question 3.
What is pietra-dura?
Answer:
Pietradura is the coloured hard stones placed in depressions carved into marble or sandstone, creating beautiful and ornate patterns. Behind the emperor Shah Jahan’s throne were a series of pietradura inlays that depicted the legendary Greek god Orpheus playing the lute. It was believed that Orpheus’s music could calm ferocious beasts until they coexisted with humans peacefully.

Question 4.
What are the elements of a Mughal Chahar bagh garden?
Answer:
Char bagh gardens were gardens placed within rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels. These gardens were called ‘Chahar bagh’x.Q ., four gardens because of their symmetrical division into quarters. The chahar bagh garden also had a variation that historians describe as the “riverfront garden”. This dwelling was not located in the middle of the chahar bagh but at its edge, close to the bank of the river.

(Let’s Understand)

Question 5.
How did a temple communicate the importance of a king?
Answer:
Temple communicate the importance of a king in the following manner:

They were meant to exhibit the powe r, wealth and devotion of the ruler.
The name of the god and the king were similar as god’s name was considered auspicious.
The king also got a chance to proclaim their close relationships with god.
Kings usually constructed large temples. As they worshipped their deities together in the royal temples, it seemed as if they brought the just rule of the gods on earth.
The temple was a miniature model of the world ruled by the king and his allies.

Question 6.
An inscription in Shah Jahan’s diwan-i khas in Delhi stated: “If there is Paradise on Earth, it is here, it is here, it is here.” How w as this image created?
Answer:
During Shah Jahan’s reign, the different elements of Mughal architecture were fused together in a grand harmonious synthesis. His reign witnessed a huge amount of construction activity, especially in Agra and Delhi. The ceremonial halls of the public and private audience (Diwan-i khas and Diwan-i-am) were carefully planned. These courts were placed within a large courtyard and were described as ‘Chihil Sutun’ or forty-pillared halls.

The audience halls wrere specially constructed to resemble a mosque, and the pedestal on which Shah Jahan’s throne was placed was frequently described as the ‘Question ibla’, i.e., the direction faced by Muslims at prayer. ‘ The idea of the king as a representative of God on earth was suggested by these architectural features.

Question 7.
How did the Mughal court suggest that everyone the rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak received justice equally from the emperor?
Answer:
The Mughal court which had the Diwan- i-aam suggested that everyone the rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak received justice which was made for all in an equal way. Shah Jahan’s audience hall was constructed and designed in such a way to communicate that the king’s justice was equal for the high and the low.

Its aim was to create a world where all could live together in harmony. He also hanged a golden chain in front of his Taj Mahal. Anyone at anytime w’ho need justice can strike that bell. There w’as no difference between the rich and poor in the emperor’s court.

Question 8.
What role did the Yamuna play in the layout of the new Mughal city at Shahjahanabad?
Answer:
The river Yamuna had a very crucial role in the layout of the new Mughal city at Shahjahanabad in the following way:
In Shahjahanabad, the imperial palace commanded the river-front. Only the most favoured nobles were given access to the river. Shah Jahan chose the river-front garden in the layout of the Taj Mahal.

To control the access that the nobles had to the river, he developed the same architectural form. Only the exceptionally favoured nobles like his eldest son Dara Shukoh were given access to the river. Common people had to construct their homes in the city away from the river Yamuna. It expanded the layout of the city.

(Let’s Discuss)

Question 9.
The rich and powerful construct large houses today. In what ways were the constructions of kings and their courtiers different in the past?
Answer:
The rich and powerful construct large houses today. But these houses are not the same as those of the kings and their courtiers in the past because:

Safety and security were the major consideration of the kings and their courtiers for the constructions. The houses had very big courtyards, huge and thick walls, domed roofs, big gardens and beautifully decorated halls. Houses and palaces were generally surrounded by water bodies.
Nowadays, they have less open areas and meet mainly individual requirements. The houses do not have courtyards, domed roofs. Hence, in many ways these are inferior to those of the kings and their courtiers houses.

Question 10.
Look at Figure 4. How could that

building be constructed faster today?
Answer:
Nowadays, technologies have advanced and we have many facilities, equipments, tools which can construct huge buildings veiy easily and in less time. Earlier, it was very difficult to construct them’ but they were made possible with labourers. Those buildings took a very long time. Those temples and buildings were usually constructed as a matter of pride in old days.

(Let’s Do)

Question 11.
Find out whether there is a statue of or a memorial to a great person in your village or town. Why was it placed there? What purpose does it serve?
Answer:
Since the places will be different so students can write on their own. They need to put the following points in the write up: After finding the memorial, find out in w hich location it is situated and when it was established? Who was the founder? What was its significance?

Question 12.
Visit and describe any park or garden in your neighbourhood. In what w ays is it similar to or different from the gardens of the Mughals?
Answer:
Since the places will be different, students can discuss it in the class. Few points given such as the gardens of Mughals were spread over a large area and had varieties of plants and flowers. They were also beautifully decorated and protected.

JAC Class 7th History Rulers and Buildings Important Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1.
The Kandariva Mahadeva temple had a main hall which was known as…..
(a) Mahamandir
(b) Mahamandapa
(c) Maharaksha
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Mahamandapa

Question 2.
The Agra Fort was built by……
(a) Babur
(b) Shah Jahan
(c) Jahangir
(d) Akbar
Answer:
(d) Akbar

Question 3.
The surface of the Qutub Minar was……..
(a) circular
(b) rectangular
(c) curved and angular
(d)triangular
Answer:
(c) curved and angular

Question 4.
The Taj Mahal is the grandest architectural achievement in the reign of…….
(a) Jahangir
(b) Shah Jahan
(c) Babur
(d) Akbar
Answer:
(d) Akbar

Question 5.
Whenever the kingdoms were attacked by another ruler, temples were targeted and looted. looted the famous Shiva temple at Somnath, Gujarat.
(a) Sultan of Baghdad
(b) Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni
(c) Jahangir
(d) Ibrahim Lodi
Answer:
(b) Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni

Question 6.
Indian architecture flourished under……… dynasty.
(a) Mughal
(b) Maratha
(c) Chola
(d) Rashtrakuta
Answer:
(a) Mughal

Question 7.
Babur, built formal gardens, placed within rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels. This style of four gardens (symmetrical division into quarters) called as…..
(a) Nayan bagh
(b) Ghazal bagh
(c) Chahar bagh
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) Chahar bagh

Question 8.
The courts like Diwan-i-khas and Diwan-i-aam, were planned very carefully and were known as forty- pillared halls, and placed within a large courtyard. These halls are known as
(a) Chihil Sutun
(b) Pishtaq
(c) Chihil khas
(d) Sutun forty
Answer:
(a) Chihil Sutun

Question 9.
Architecture Hasht-Bihisht refers to a specific type of floor-plan, common in Persian architecture and Mughal architecture, whereby the floor plan is divided into eight chambers surrounding a central room. Hasht- Bihisht means
(a) Eight paradises in water
(b) Eight chahar bagh
(c) Paradise in the eighth life
(d) Eight paradises
Answer:
(d) Eight paradises

Question 10.
The construction of baolis were done
(a) for entertainment of royals
(b) to fulfil the water demand
(c) for rainwater harvesting
(d) to provide a place for bathing for royals
Answer:
(c) for rainwater harvesting

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Which building was constructed by using the architectural style pietra- dura?
Answer:
The Taj Mahal was constructed by using the architectural style pietra-dura.

Question 2.
Which language has been used to write the two bands of inscription found under the balcony of Qutb Minar?
Answer:
Arabic language has been used to write the two bands of inscription found under the balcony of Qutb Minar.

Question 3.
Was Rajendra Chola one of the powerful rulers of the Chola Dynasty?
Answer:
Yes, Rajendra Chola was one of the powerful rulers of the Chola dynasty.

Question 4.
Which Mughal Emperor has mentioned about Hindustan in his biography?
Answer:
Babur has mentioned about Hindustan in his biography.

Question 5.
What do you mean by Mahamandapa in temple?
Answer:
Mahamandapa means the main hall in the temple.

Question 6.
Madhurai, the capital of the Pandyas was invaded by which ruler?
Answer:
Sena II, invaded Madhurai, the capital of the Pandyas.

Question 7.
Which ruler won universal appreciation for constructing a large reservoir just outside Dehli-i-Kuhna?
Answer:
Sultan Iltutmish was the ruler who won universal appreciation for constructing a large reservoir just outside Dehli-i- Kuhna.

Question 8.
To which lord, Brihadesvara temple is dedicated?
Answer:
To lord Shiva, Brihadesvara temple is dedicated.

Question 9.
What do you mean by pishtaq?
Answer:
Pishtaq means the tall gateway.

Question 10.
What was the special feature of Akbar’s capital, Fatehpur Sikri?
Answer:
The special feature of Akbar’s capital, Fatehpur Sikri was the architecture of the buildings which were influenced by the styles of Malwa and Gujarat.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What were the main traits of Shah Jahan’s city Shahjahanabad?
Answer:
Shah Jahan’s city of Shahjahanabad that he constructed was on one side of River Yamuna. The imperial palace commanded the river-front. Only specially favoured nobles were given access to the river such as his eldest son Dara Shikoh. All other people had to construct their homes in the city away from the River Yamuna.

Question 2.
What types of buildings were built between eighth and eighteenth centuries?
Answer:
Between the eighth and the eighteenth centuries, kings and their nobles built two kinds of buildings, they were: First one were forts, palaces, garden residences and tombs safe, protected and grandiose places of rest in this world. Second one were structures meant for public activity including temples, mosques, tanks, wells, caravans, sarais and bazaars.

Question 3.
Where is Panch Mahal located and for what it is known?
Answer:
Panch Mahal is the part of Fatehpur Sikri, Uttar Pradesh, India. The Panch Mahal meaning ‘Five level Palace’ was commissioned by Akbar This structure stands close to the Zenana quarters (Harem) which supports the supposition that it was used for entertainment and relaxation. It has different temples with beautiful pillars in several designs. It was built to enjoy fresh air and has five storey buildings.

Question 4.
Describe the architecture of Taj Mahal.
Answer:
The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian and earlier Mughal architecture. The architecture of Taj Mahal was one of
the great accomplishments. Shah Jahan adapted the river-front garden in the layout of the Taj Mahal, during his reign. The white marble mausoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge of the river and the garden was to its south. Shah Jahan developed this architectural form as a means to control the access that nobles had to the river.

Question 5.
Why Rajarajeshwara temple was very difficult to construct?
Answer:
Rajarajeshwara temple was very difficult to construct because:

It was built in eleventh century and it had the tallest Shikhara amongst all the temples of that time.
Since there were no technology like these days and to lift the stones for the ” top of Shikhara of weight around 90 kgs was a tough thing and they did it manually.
An inclined path was built to the top of the temple, placed the boulders on the rollers and rolled it all the way to the top.
The path was made from 4 kms away so that it would not be so steep and easy to climb.

Question 6.
What are the two technological and stylistic developments noticeable and appreciable from the twelfth century.
Answer:
Two technological and stylistic developments that are noticeable and appreciable from the twelfth century are:-

The weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows was sometimes carried by arches. This style of architectural form was known as “arcuate”.
In construction, limestone cement was used in many folds. This was very high quality cement which when mixed with stone chips hardened into concrete. And, for this, construction of large structures was easier and faster.

Question 7.
Write a brief note on Humayun’s tomb.
Answer:
Humayun tomb’s construction started in 1564 A.D. and it took eight years to complete. It was built by Humayun’s wife, Persian queen HamTdah Banu Begam. It was designed by Persian architect Mirak MIrza Ghiyas. The construction was made in Persian method of construction. The use of stones and marbles shows Indian influence a lot.

Question 8.
What do you understand by ‘Mausoleum’?
Answer:
A ‘Mausoleum’ is an impressive building housing a tomb or group of tombs. Some of the mausoleums such as Sheikh Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri and Taj Mahal at Agra are built on Persian framework.

Question 9.
Explain briefly the Kandariya Mahadeva temple.
Answer:
The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple meaning “The Great God of the Cave”, is the largest and most ornate Hindu temple in the medieval temple group found at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, India. Brief on Kandariya Mahadeva Temple

The Kandariya Mahadeva temple was constructed in 999 by the king Dhangadeva of the Chandela Dynasty.
It was dedicated to Shiva.
The entrance had an ornamented gateway and the main hall (mahamandapa) was there where dances were performed.
The image of the chief deity was kept in the main shrine known as garbhagriha. In this place only the king, his immediate family and priests gathered for ritual worship.

Question 10.
What is Islamic architecture?
Answer:
The Islamic architecture represents the order of Islam. It was a mixture of Persian, Timurid, Samarkand and Bukhara style and not entirely foreign implant on Indian scene. It is one of the world’s most renowned building traditions and known for its minarets, domes, vaulting, arches, tombs, etc.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the main architectural technique adopted in Qutub Minar. Name the people, ruler who were involved in the construction of Qutb Minar.
Answer:
The main architectural technique adopted in Qutb Minar are:

Qutb Minar is five storeys high.
It has two bands of inscription under the balcony.
It has the pattern under the balcony by the geometrical designs and small arches.
Only the most skilled craftsperson could perform this task as the surface of the minar is curved and angular.
It required great distinctness to place an inscription on such a surface.
Qutbuddin Aybak constructed the first floor around 1199. Then Iltutmish constructed it around 1229. But over the years, it was damaged by natural calamities like earthquake, lighting but repaired by Alauddin. Khalji, Muhammad TUghluq, Firuz Shah Tughluq and Ibrahim Lodi.

Question 2.
Is the statement true ‘The Mughal ruler spent their money more on architecture and art and less on improving the condition of the people’. Justify your answer.
Answer:
It is true that the Mughal rulers spent their money more on architecture and art and less on improving the condition of the people. Reasons are:

Most of the Mughal rulers were interested in art and architecture. They built buildings with fine patterns and designs of architecture.
Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri and Buland Darwaza near Agra.
Jahangir made beautiful gardens like Shalimar Bagh. He also built Red Fort, Jama Masjid, the greatest achievement.
Art and architecture was at its peak during his reign. Shah Jahan built Taj Mahal which is also one of the achievements.
Lots of money were required for the construction of these architectural buildings and for monuments.
The Mughals got it from the royal treasury without giving a thought for the welfare of the common people.
It would have been commendable and admirable for the Mughal emperors, if they had spent these money on improving and for the betterment of the common people.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Solutions

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 4 Air

September 3, 2024August 2, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 4 Air

→ Earth is surrounded by a huge layer of air known as atmosphere.

On the earth all the living creatures depend on the atmosphere for their survival.
With the absence of this layer of protection, we would have been baked by the scorching heat of the sun at daytime and frozen at night time. Hence, the temperature of the earth is liveable due to this layer of air.

→ Composition of the Atmosphere:

The two main gases which make the most of the atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen. Carbon dioxide, helium, ozone, argon and hydrogen are found in less quantities.
Tiny and minute dust particles are also present in the atmosphere apart from these gases.
We take some amount of nitrogen when we inhale into our lungs and exhale it.
Plants take nitrogen from soil and roots of the plant which is brought by the bacterias and change its form so that plants can use it as they cannot take nitrogen directly.
The second most abundant gas found is the oxygen. Green plants produces oxygen during photosynthesis and humans and animals use oxygen to breathe.
The balance gets disturbed if we cut down the forests in large numbers.
The other important gas is carbon dioxide. Plants use carbon dioxide to make their food and release oxygen. Humans and animals release carbon dioxide.
The balance gets disturbed by burning of fuels like oils, coal. Hence, the earth’s climate and weather gets affected by the increased volume of carbon dioxide.

→ Structure of the Atmosphere:

Starting from the earth’s surface, the atmosphere has been divided into five layers – Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and Exosphere.
Troposphere – Themost important layer of the atmosphere is Troposphere and its average height is 13 km. The air we breathe exists here. Most of the weather incidences such as rainfall, fog and hailstorm occur in this layer.
Stratosphere – Stratosphere lies above the troposphere and it extends up to a height of 50 km. This layer is almost free from clouds and related weather incidences are making ideal conditions for flying aeroplanes. One of the important features is that it contains a layer of ozone gas.
Mesosphere – The third layer of the atmosphere is mesosphere. Above the stratosphere it is situated and extends up to the height of 80 km. On entering from the space, meteorites bum up in this layer.
Thermosphere – Temperature rises very rapidly and fast with increasing height in thermosphere.
Ionosphere is a part of this layer and it extends between 80^100 km. Radio transmission happens in this layer. In fact, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer.
Exosphere- It is the upper most layer of the atmosphere. It has very thin air. Light gases are present such as helium and hydrogen float into the space from here.

→ Weather and Climate:
Weather is the hour-to-hour, day to day condition of the atmosphere. But, the average weather condition or phenomena of a place for a longer period of time is called as the climate of a place.

→ Temperature:

The degree or level of hotness and coldness of the air is called as the temperature.
The atmosphere’s temperature changes not only between day and night but also from season to season as well.
The incoming solar energy intercepted by the earth is called the insolation. It is one of the important factors that influence the distribution of temperature.
Towards the poles, the amount of insolation decreases from the equator hence the temperature also decreases.
Temperature in cities is much higher than that of villages because of the concrete and metals in buildings and the asphalt of roads get heated up during the day and this is released during the night.

→ Air Pressure

From all directions, the air presses us and our body exerts a counter pressure.
The pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth’s surface is called the air pressure. It is highest at sea level and decreases with height.
Low pressure is related to cloudy skies and wet weather. A low-pressure is created in areas where temperature is high and the air gets heated and rises.
High pressure is related to clear and sunny skies. Heavy air sinks and creates a high pressure area and the air always moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.

→ Wind

Wind is the movement of air from high pressure area to low pressure areas.
It is divided into three parts:
- Permanent winds
- Seasonal winds
- Local winds
Permanent winds are the trade winds, westerlies and easterlies. They blow constantly throughout the year in a particular direction.
Seasonal winds are the winds which change their direction in different seasons such as monsoons in India.
Local winds are the winds which blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area such as land and sea breeze. The hot and dry local wind of northern planes of India is called loo.

→ Moisture

We know that when water evaporates from land and different water bodies, it becomes water vapour. Humidity is the moisture in the air at any time. When the air is full of water vapour then it is called as a humid day.
Clouds are just masses of water droplets. The water vapour condenses which cause the formation of these droplets of water.
Precipitation happens when these droplets of water become too heavy to float in air and then they come down.
Rain is the precipitation that comes down to the earth in liquid form.
The three types of rainfall are the convectional rainfall, the orographic rainfall and the cyclonic rainfall.
For the survival of plants and animals, rainfall is very important as it brings fresh water to the earth’s surface. If rainfall is less then water scarcity and drought occur and if it is more, then floods take place.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Water

September 3, 2024August 2, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Water

→ The heat of sun causes evaporation of water vapour and when it cools down, it condenses and forms clouds. Then it may fall on the land or sea in the form of rain, snow or sleet.

Water cycle is the process by which water continually changes its form and circulates between oceans and seas, atmosphere and land.
Our earth is like a terrarium. The water which existed centuries ago still exists today.
The fresh water majorly comes from the rivers, ponds, springs and glaciers. The ocean bodies and the seas contains salty or saline water as it contains huge amount of dissolved salts. Most of the salt is of sodium chloride.

→ Distribution of Water bodies:
Three-fourth of the earth surface is covered by water. The following table gives the distribution of water in percentage:

Saline water	Oceans	97.3
Fresh water	Ground water	0.68
	Ice caps	2.0
	Fresh water lakes and Inland seas	0.009
	Salt lakes	0.009
	Atmosphere	0.0019
	Rivers	0.0001
	Total	100.00

→ Ocean Circulation:
In oceans, the movements that occur can be categorised as waves, tides and currents.

→ Waves:

Waves occurs when the water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls alternately.
The winds blows at a very high speed forms huge waves during a storm and causes destruction in an enormous way. An earthquake, a volcanic eruption or underwater landslides may shift large amounts of ocean water. The huge tidal wave is known as tsunami which may be as high as 15 m.
The largest tsunami ever measured was as high as 150 m. and travels at a speed of more than 700 km. per hour.

→ Tides:

A tide is the periodic, regular rise and fall of ocean water twice in a day.
When water covers much of the shore by rising to its highest level then it is high tide. When water falls to its lowest level and recedes from the shore then it is low tide.
On the earth’s surface, the strong gravitational pull exerted by the sun and the moon causes the tides.
When the sun, the moon and the earth are in the same line during the full moon and new moon days then the tides are highest. These type of tides are known as spring tides.
The ocean waters get drawn in diagonally opposite directions by the gravitational pull of sun and earth resulting in low tides when the moon is in its first and last quarter. These type of tides are known as neap tides.
High tides helps in navigation, fishing and to generate electricity in some areas.

→ Ocean Currents:

Streams of water which flows constantly on the ocean surface in definite directions is known as ocean currents. The ocean currents may be warm or cold.
The warm ocean currents emerge near the equator and move towards the poles. The cold ocean currents carry water from polar or higher latitudes to tropical or lower latitudes.
These currents influence the temperature conditions of the area. The Labrador Ocean current is cold current while the Gulf Stream is a warm current.
The areas where a warm and cold current is present, they experience the foggy weather which makes navigation difficult but provides the best fishing grounds.
Types of tides in sea or ocean are flood tide and ebb tide. Flood tide are the rise of sea level and the fall in sea level is called the ebb tide.

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Natural Vegetation and Wild Life

September 3, 2024August 2, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 7 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 Natural Vegetation and Wild Life

→ As their is change in height, the climate also changes and that changes the natural vegetation. The growth of vegetation depends on temperature and moisture. It also depends on factors like slope and thickness of soil.

From place to place, the type and thickness of natural vegetation varies.
Natural vegetation is classified in to three broad categories:
Forests: Grows where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a tree cover. Depending upon all these factors, dense and open forests grown.
Grasslands: Grows in the region of moderate rain.
Shrubs: Thorny shrurbs and scrubs grows in the dry region.
Due to the changes of climatic condition occurs mainly because of the type of natural vegetation.

→ Forests:

Tropical Evergreen Forests
These forests are also known as tropical rainforests. These thick forests are found mainly in the regions- near the equator and close to the tropics. These regions are hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year and no particular dry season, thus the trees do not shed their leaves altogether. Hence, they are called evergreen.
Rosewood, ebony, mahogany are common trees are also known as hardwood trees.

→ Tropical Deciduous Forests

These are the monsoon forests which are found in the large part of India, northern Australia and in central America. These regions experience seasonal changes and trees shed their leaves in the dry season to conserve water.
The trees found in these forests are sal, teak, neem and s his ham. These are extremely useful for making furniture, transport and constructional materials.
The common animals of these regions are tigers, lions, elephants, langoors and monkeys.

→ Temperate Evergreen Forests

These forests are located in the mid latitudinal coastal region.
They are found along the eastern margin of the continents, e.g., in southeast USA, South China and in South East Brazil.
Trees found are oak, pine, eucalyptus, etc. which are both hard and soft wood trees.

→ Temperate Deciduous Forests

These are found in the north eastern part of USA, China, New Zealand, Chile and in the coastal regions of Western Europe,
They shed their leaves in the dry season.
The trees found are oak, ash, beech, etc.
The animals found are deer, foxes, wolves.
Birds like pheasants, monals are found here.

→ Mediterranean Vegetation

The west and south west margins of the continents are different. They have Mediterranean vegetation.
It is found in the areas around the Mediterranean sea in Europe, Africa and Asia.
This kind of vegetation is also found outside the actual Mediterranean region in California in the USA, south west Africa, South America and South west Australia.
These regions are having hot dry summers and mild rainy winters.
Oranges, figs, olives and grapes are citrus fruits which are cultivated here because people have removed the natural vegetation in order to cultivate what they wish to.
Wildlife is not present here that much.

→ Coniferous Forests

The important variety of trees in these forests are Chir, pine, cedar.
Trees are tall, softwood evergreen trees.
These woods are very useful for making pulp, which is used for manufacturing paper and newsprint.
Match boxes and packing boxes are also made from softwood.

→ Grasslands
Two types of grasslands:

Tropical and
Temperate Grasslands.

→ Tropical Grasslands

These grow on either side of the equator and extend till the tropics.
This vegetation grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall.
These can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres in height.
Savannah grasslands of Africa are of this type.
In tropical grasslands, animals found are elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards.

→ Temperate Grasslands

These are found in the midlatitudinal zones and in the interior part of the continents.
Grass is short and nutritious.
In the temperate region, the animals which are found are wild buffaloes, bisons, antilopes.

→ Thorny Bushes

These are found in the dry desert such as tropical deserts which are located in the western margins of the continents.
The vegetation cover is scarce here because of scanty rain and scorching heat.

→ Tundra Vegetation

The polar region is extremely cold.
The growth of natural vegetation is very limited here.
Only mosses, lichens and very small shrubs are found here.
It grows during the very short summer. These are known as Tundra type of vegetation.
They are found in the polar areas of Europe, Asia and North America.
The animals have thick fur and skin to protect themselves from the cold climatic conditions. Some of the animals are seal, walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear and snow foxes.