Bhagya – Page 29 – Jharkhand Board Solution

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

September 9, 2024September 6, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 5 Minerals and Energy Resources

→ Minerals are an indispensable part of our lives.

They are homogeneous, a naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure.
Minerals are obtained from rocks.
Certain rocks contain only one mineral while
some other rocks contain many minerals.
They vary in colour, lustre, density, and hardness.
Minerals occur in igneous and metamorphic rocks in cracks, crevices, and joints.
The smaller occurrence is called veins and the larger occurrence is called lodes.
In sedimentary rocks, minerals occur in layers or beds, e.g., gypsum and potash.
Certain minerals occur by the decomposition of surface rocks, e.g., bauxite.
Some minerals involve alluvial deposits. These deposits are called placer deposits which are not corroded by water, e.g., gold, silver, etc.
Ocean waters contain a vast quantity of minerals e.g., common salt, magnesium, etc.

→ Distribution of Mineral Resources in India

India is fortunate to have plenty of minerals but they are unevenly distributed.
Peninsular rocks contain reserves of coal, metallic minerals, mica, etc.
Sedimentary rocks in western and eastern coasts, Assam and Gujarat have petroleum deposits.
Rock system in Rajasthan has non-ferrous minerals.
The alluvial plains are devoid of economic minerals.

→ Ferrous Minerals
Ferrous minerals account for about three- fourths of the total value of the production of metallic minerals. They provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries.

→ Iron Ore

It is the basic mineral and the backbone of industrial development.
Magnetite is the finest iron ore with 70% iron content. Magnetite has magnetic qualities.
Haematite is the most important industrial ore in terms of quantity used. It has 50%- 60% iron content.

→ Major Iron Ore Beits in India

Odisha-Jharkhand Belt: High-grade haematite is found in the Badampahar mines in Odisha, Singhbhum district in Jharkhand.
Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt (Lies in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra): 14 deposits of super high-grade haematite is found. It is exported to Japan and South- Korea.
Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru- Tumakuru Belt: It lies in Karnataka. Kudremukh mines are 100% export unit.
Maharashtra-Goa Belt (Lies in Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra): Though the ores are not of good quality, they are exported through Marmagao port.

→ Manganese:

It is used in manufacturing steel.
10 kg of manganese is required to manufacture 1 tonne of steel. Madhya Pradesh (27%) is the largest producer of manganese in India.

→ Non-Ferrous Minerals
Important non-ferrous minerals are: copper, lead, zinc, etc.

→ Copper
India is deficient in the production of copper. They are malleable, ductile and good conductor; used in electrical appliances, electronic and chemical industries. Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan are leading producers.

→ Bauxite
Aluminium is obtained from bauxite. Bauxite is strong like iron with extreme lightness. It is malleable and good conductor. 49% of bauxite is produced in Odisha.

→ Non-Metallic Minerals
Mica

It splits easily into thin sheets.
It is an indispensable mineral used in electric and electronic industries due to its dielectric strength, low power loss factor and resistance , to high voltage.

→ Limestone

It is found in sedimentary rocks,’composed in calcium and magnesium carbonates.
It is the basic low material for cement industries and essential for iron ore in the refineries.

→ Conservation of Minerals

Industry and agriculture are strongly dependent on minerals.
The process of mineral formation is very slow in comparison to its present consumption.
They are ,finite and non-renewable.
Continued extraction from greater depth leads to increasing costs and decreases in quality.
Improved technologies need to be evolved to lower the costs.
Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other substances are the steps to consume the minerals for the future.

→ Energy Resources

Energy is required for all the activities, i.e., to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel vehicles and to drive machinery. Energy resources are of two types:
Conventional Resources: Include firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity.
Non-conventional Resources: Include solar, the wind, tidal, geothermal, bio-gas and atomic energy.

→ Coal
Used for power generation, to supply energy to industry and domestic need.

→ Types of Coal

Peat: Decaying plants in swamps produce peat. It has low carbon, high moisture, and low heating capacity.
Lignite: It is a low grade brown coal.
Neyveli in Tamil Nadu has great reserves of lignite. This is also used for generation of electricity.
Bituminous: It is buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures. Most popular coal in commercial use.
Anthracite: It is the highest quality hard coal.
Coal occurs in rock series of 2 main geological ages- Gondwana and Tertiary.

→ Petroleum

It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for industries.
Most of the petroleum occurrences are of tertiary age.
Mumbai, Gujarat and Assam are major petroleum-producing states in India.
Assam is the oldest oil producing state in India.

→ Natural Gas

Natural gas is found in association with or without petroleum.
It is an environment-friendly fuel because of the low carbon dioxide emission.
Large reserves are found in the Krishna- Godavari basin.
The 1700 km long Hazira-Vijaypur- Jagdishpur cross-country gas pipeline links Mumbai High and Bassien.

→ Electricity

Per capita consumption of electricity is considered as an index of development.
It is generated in two ways: Hydro electricity and Thermal electricity.

→ Hydro Electricity:
It is generated by fast flowing water. It is a renewable fuel. In India, there are many multi-projects like Bhakra Nangal, Kopili, Hydel project, etc. Thermal Electricity: It is generated by using coal, petroleum and natural gas. It is a non-renewable fossil fuel.

→ Importance of Non-Conventional Source of Energy

Growing consumption of energy resulted in the over dependent on fossil fuels, like coal, petroleum, etc.
Rising prices of oil and gas have raised uncertainties about the supply in future.
Increasing use of fossil fuels results in the environmental problems.
Therefore, there is a pressing need to use renewable resources like solar, wind, tidal energy, etc

→ Nuclear/Atomic Energy

It is obtained by altering the structure of atoms.
Uranium and Thorium are used for generating electricity.
Monazite sands of Kerala are rich in thorium.

→ Solar Energy

Since India is a tropical country, there are enormous possibilities of tapping solar energy.
Photovoltaic technology directly converts sunlight into electricity.
It will minimize the use of firewood and dung cakes in rural areas.

→ Wind Power
The largest wind farm cluster is located in TamilNadu, between Nagercoil and Madurai.

→ Bio-Gas

Shrubs, fast waste animal, and human waste are used to produce bio-gas for domestic use in rural areas.
It has higher thermal efficiency.
The plants using cattle dung are called ‘Gobar Gas Plants’.
It has two benefits: Providing energy for electricity and providing manure.

→ Tidal Energy

Oceanic tides are used to generate electricity.
Gulf of kachchh in Gujarat, Gulf of Khambhat provide tidal energy.

→ Geothermal Energy

Heat and electricity is produced by using the heat from the interior of the Earth.
Ground water absorbs the heat from the rocks and becomes hot.
There are hundreds of hot springs in India.
Two experimental projects have been set up-one in Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) and the other in Puga valley (Ladakh).

→ Importance of Conservation of Energy Resources

Energy is a basic requirement for economic development.
Every sector of the national economy, i.e., agriculture, industry, domestic, etc. needs inputs of energy.
Consumption of energy has been increasing since independence.
Energy conservations and use of renewable energy are the two features of sustainable energy.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 4 Agriculture

September 9, 2024September 6, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 4 Agriculture

→ Two-thirds of the population of India are engaged in agricultural activities.

Agriculture is a primary activity, which produces most of the food that we consume.
It produces foodgrains and raw material for various industries.
Few agricultural products like tea, coffee, spices, etc. are exported.

→ Types of Farming

Cultivation methods have changed significantly depending upon the characteristics of physical environment, technological know-how and socio-cultural practices.
The types of farming are primitive subsistence farming, intensive subsistence farming and commercial farming.
Primitive subsistence agriculture is a ‘slash and bum’ agriculture. When the fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land for cultivation.
Practised on small patches of land, with primitive tools and family or community labourers. ‘This type of farming depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil.
Intensive subsistence farming is practised in the. are.as of high population pressure on land. It is a labour-intensive farming with high dose of biochemical inputs and irrigation to obtain higher production. The size of land holding is uneconomical but the farmers continue to take the maximum output from the limited land.
Commercial farming involves the use of higher doses of modem inputs, like high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order to obtain higher productivity. The degree of commercialisation varies from one region to another. Plantation agriculture is a type of commercial farming where a single crop is grown on a large area. It has an interface of agriculture and industry.

→ Cropping Pattern

The three cropping seasons of India are – rabi, kharif and zaid.
Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June. Wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard are some rabi crops. Wheat and other rabi crops are grown in Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. Availability of precipitation from western temperate cyclone helps in the success of these crops. Green Revolution has been an important factor in the growth of the rabi crops in the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.
Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon and harvested in September- October. Important crops are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur, moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean. Important rice growing states are Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Konkan coast, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Zaid season is a short season between the rabi and kharif seasons. Some of the crops grown in this season are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables, sugarcane and fodder crops.

→ Major Crops:

Major crops grown are rice, wheat, millets, pulse, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute, etc.
Rice is a staple crop of majority of people of India. India is the second largest producer of rice after China. It requires high temperature, high humidity and annual rainfall of above 100 cm. In areas of less rainfall, irrigation is required. It is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal and deltaic regions. Development of dense canal irrigation and tube wells has enabled rice cultivation in areas of less rainfall.
Wheat is the second most important cereal crop. It requires a cool growing season, bright surlshine at the time of ripening, and 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall equally distributed over the growing season. There are two important wheat growing zones. Major wheat producing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh.
Millets, also known as coarse grains, are of high nutritious value. Jowar, bajra and ragi are important millets grown in India.
Maize is used both as food and fodder. It is a kharif crop. It grows in old alluvial soil. In some states it is grown as rabi crop. Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh are major maize producing states.
Pulses: Iifdia is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world. It is a major source of protein in vegetarian diet. Except for arhar, all pulses are leguminous crops and help restore soil fertility by fixing nitrogen. Therefore, they are grown in rotation with other crops. Major pulse producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

→ Food Crops other than Grains

Sugarcane is a tropical as well as subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and humid climate, and annual rainfall between 75 cm and 100 cm. It can grow on variety of soil. It requires manual labour from sowing to harvesting. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane after Brazil. The main sugarcane producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.
Main oilseeds produced in India are groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum, soyabean, castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower seeds. Most of these are edible and used as cooking medium. Some of these are used as raw material in the production of soap, cosmetics and ointments.
Tea is a plantation agriculture. It was introduced by the British in India and is a popular beverage. It grows in tropical and sub-tropical climates. It is a labour-intensive industry. Major tea producing states are Assam, hills of Daijeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Coffee is a plantation crop. The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in the country. Its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables after China. India produces tropical as well as temperate fruits. Variety of fruits and vegetables is grown all over the country.

→ Non-Food Crops:

Rubber: It grows in tropical and sub-tropical areas. It requires moist and humid climate. It is an important industrial raw material. It mainly grows in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Garo hills of Meghalaya and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Fibre crops: Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are fibre crops. Cotton, jute and hemp are grown on soil. Natural silk is obtained from cocoons of silkworms fed on mulberry leaves. Rearing of silkworms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.
India is the second largest producer of cotton after China. Cotton grows well in black soil of the Deccan plateau. Major cotton producing states are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Jute is known as the golden fibre. It grows well on the well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed every year. It is grown in West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya. It is used for making gunny bags, coir mats, ropes, yam, carpets and’artefacts. It is losing its market to synthetic fibres, especially the nylon because of its high cost.

→ Technological and Institutional Reforms

Sustained uses of land without compatible techno-institutional changes have hindered the pace of agricultural development.
Collectivisation, consolidation of land holdings, cooperation and abolition of zamindari, etc. were given priority to bring institutional reforms in the country after Independence.
Reforms were introduced by the Government of India in the 1960s and 1970s to improve Indian agriculture.
The Green Revolution, which was based on the use of package technology and the White Revolution (Operation Flood) were some of the strategies initiated to improve the lot of Indian -agriculture.
However the development was in the selected areas only.
Some important steps taken were provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire, disease, establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative societies, etc.
Kissan Credit Card (KCC) and Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS), Minimum Support Price, special weather bulletins, etc. for farmers were introduced by the Government of India.
Bhoodan Gramdan or Bloodless Revolution by Vinoba Bhave was a successful movement.

→ Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture

Though globalisation has been in India since the British rule and even before, it affected the farmers after 1990 when they found it difficult to compete with the developed countries because of the highly subsidised agriculture in those countries.
Genetic engineering is recognised as a powerful supplement in inventing new hybrid varieties of seeds. Organic farming is in vogue and encouraged.
There should be a change in cropping pattern from cereals to high-value crops to increase earning from agriculture as the economists feel the future of Indian farmers will be bleak, if they continue with foodgrain production on small landholdings.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Water Resources

September 9, 2024September 6, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 3 Water Resources

→ Three-fourth of the earth’s surface is covered with water but only a small proportion of it is freshwater that can be put to use.

Freshwater is mainly obtained from precipitation, surface run-off and groundwater.
Groundwater isTieing continually renewed and recharged through the hydrological cycle.
It is predicted that by 2025 nearly two billion people will live in absolute water scarcity.

→ Water Scarcity7 and the Need for Water Conservation and Management

The availability of water resources varies over time and space because of variations in seasonal and annual precipitation.
Water scarcity in most cases is caused by over-exploitation, excessive use and unequal access to water among different social groups.
Water scarcity may be due to outcome of large and growing population and consequent gfeater demands for water and unequal access to it.
This means higher food grain production.
This leads to exploitation of water resources to expand irrigated areas and dry-season agriculture. .
Most farmers have their own wells and tube wells in their farms for irrigation to increase their produce. This may reduce the level of groundwater which may adversely affect the availability of water and food security of the people.
The existing freshwater resources are under tremendous pressure from the ever- increasing number of industries, multiplying urban centres and urban lifestyles.
Scarcity of water may also be due to bad quality of water. Water may be polluted by domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals, pesticides and fertilisers used in agriculture, thus, making it hazardous for human use.
It is necessary to conserve and manage water resources to safeguard ourselves from health hazards, to ensure food security, continuation of our livelihoods and productive activities and to prevent degradation of natural ecosystems.
Overexploitation and mismanagement of water resources will deplete this resource and cause ecological crisis which may affect our lives deeply.

→ Multi-Purpose River Projects and Integrated Water Resources Management

Archaeological and historical records show that in the ancient times construction of sophisticated hydraulic structures, such as dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs, lakes, embankments and canals for irrigation.
Traditionally dams were built to impound rivers and rainwater that could be used later for irrigating agricultural fields. These days dams are constructed not only for irrigation, but also for electricity generation, flood control, domestic and industrial water supply, fish breeding, inland navigation and recreation. They are now known as multi¬purpose river projects.
The multi-purpose projects were launched after Independence with their integrated water resource management approach with aim of leading the nation to development and progress. Jawaharlal Nehru proclaimed dams as the‘temples of modem India’.
However, multi-purpose projects have their disadvantages. These projects lead to sedimentation, which obstructs the natural flow, resulting in rockier stream beds; make it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate, especially for spawning; submerge the floodplains and vegetation, leading to decomposition of soil over a period of time.
Multi-purpose projects also lead to large- scale displacement of local communities, tearing them off of their livelihood and resources. Social movements like Narmada Bachao Andolan and Tehri Dam Andolan resist these projects.
Irrigation has changed the cropping pattern as farmers have shifted to water-intensive cropping causing salinisation of soil.
Inter-state water disputes have increased.
These dams have triggered floods due to sedimentation in the reservoif, induced earthquakes, and caused land degradation, water-borne diseases, pests and pollution due to excessive use of water.

→ Rainwater Harvesting:

Water harvesting is a viable alternative, both socio-economically and environmentally as compared to the multi-purpose projects.
In ancient India, there had been sophisticated hydraulic systems of rainwater harvesting.
People had in-depth knowledge of rainfall regimes, wide range of techniques to harvest rainwater, river water, flood water and recharge the groundwater sources, keeping in mind the ecological conditions and their water needs.
In the mountainous regions, people built channels like ‘kuhls’ or ‘guls’ for agriculture. In Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their fields.
In the arid and semi-arid regions ofRajasthan, farmers converted their agricultural fields into rain-fed storage structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil like the ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan. In Bengal, people carved out inundation channels to irrigate their fields.
In Bikaner, Phalodi and Banner, Rajasthan, people had well-structured rooftop rainwater harvesting system which were connected with underground tanks or tankas for storing water also called ‘Palar pani’.
This water was used during the dry season when there was scarcity of water.
Today, in western Rajasthan plenty of water is available due to the perennial Indira Gandhi Canal.
Gendathur, a remote backward village of Mysuru, Karnataka has earned the rare distinction of being rich in rainwater by practising rooftop rainwater harvesting system.
Tamil Nadu is the first state to make rooftop rainwater harvesting compulsory to all houses across the state. There are legal provisions to punish the defaulters.
Shillong in Meghalaya, 200-year old bamboo drip irrigation system is followed for irrigating plants.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 2 Forest and Wildlife Resources

September 9, 2024September 6, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 2 Forest and Wildlife Resources

→ We share this planet with millions of other living beings, starting from micro¬organisms and bacteria, lichens to banyan trees, elephants and blue whales. This entire habitat that we live in has immense biodiversity. We humans along with all living organisms form a complex web of ecological system in which we are only a part and very much dependent on this system for our own existence.

→ Forests plays a key role in the ecological system as these are also the primary producers on which all other living beings depend.

→ Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is immensely rich in wildlife and ‘cultivated species, diverse in form and function but closely integrated in a system through multiple network of interdependencies.

→ Flora and Fauna in India

India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity, and has nearly 8 per cent of the total number of species in the world (estimated to be 1.6 million).
Some estimates suggest that at least 10 per cent of India’s recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its mammals are on the threatened list. Many of these would now be categorised as ‘critical’, that is on the verge of extinction like the cheetah, pink-headed duck, mountain quail, etc.

Based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), we can classify as follows:
(a) Normal Species: Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their survival, such as cattle, sal, pine, rodents, etc.

(b) Endangered Species: These are species which are in danger of extinction. The survival of such species is difficult if the negative factors that have led to a decline in their population continue to operate. The examples of such species are black buck, crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion tailed macaque, sangai (brow antlered deer in Manipur), etc.

(c) Vulnerable Species: These are species whose population has declined to levels from where it is likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the negative factors continue to operate. The examples of such species are blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, Gangetic dolphin, etc.

(d) Rare Species: Species with small population may move into the endangered or vulnerable category if the negative factors affecting them continue to operate. The examples of such species are the Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hombill, etc.

(e) Endemic Species: These are species which are only found in some particular areas usually isolated by natural or geographical barriers. Examples of such species are the Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, mithun in Arunachal Pradesh.

(f) Extinct Species: These are species which are not found after searches of known or likely areas where they may occur. A species may be extinct from a local area, region, country, continent or the entire earth. Examples of such species are the Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck.

→ Reasons for Depletion of Biodiversity (Flora and Fauna)

The greatest damage inflicted on Indian forests was’ during the colonial period due to the expansion of the railways, agriculture, commercial and scientific forestry and mining activities.
Even after Independence, agricultural expansion continues to be one of the major causes of depletion of forest resources.
Large-scale development projects have also contributed significantly to the loss of forests. Since 1951, over 5,000 sq km of forest was cleared for river valley projects.
Mining is another important factor behind deforestation. The Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal is seriously threatened by the ongoing dqlomite mining.
Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching, over-exploitation, environmental pollution, poisoning and forest fires are factors, which have led tcfthe decline in India’s biodiversity.
Other important causes of environmental destruction are unequal access, inequitable consumption of resources and differential sharing^ of responsibility for environmental well-being. Over-population in third world countries is often cited as the cause of environmental degradation.

→ Methods or Measures to Conserve Biodiversity

Deforestation should be totally stopped. Instead, trees should be replanted on degraded land and on land where forest had been cleared earlier.
People should initiate movement against tree cutting such as ‘Chipko Movement’.
‘Van Mahotsava’ and similar kind of events should be celebrated to conserve forest.
Mass media, e.g., TV, radio, newspapers, etc., should be used for creating awareness.
Govt, should pass and implement strict laws like Indian Wildlife Protection Act – 1972 against illegal cutting of trees, hunting and poaching.
Various projects like Project Tiger, Project Rhino, etc., should be started.
More National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserve should be identified.
There should be frequent survey and census to count population of different species found in the forest.

→ Short Note on Project Tiger:
Tiger is one of the most important species among fauna. It was estimated that population of tigers has decreased rapidly in the last one hundred years. Major reasons identified behind depletion of tiger were hunting and poaching, deforestation, depletion of prey etc. Project Tiger was started in 1973 to protect the tigers from extinction. There are 50 tiger reserves in India. Project Tiger has successfully improved the condition.

→ Types of Forests in India
(a) Reserved Forests: More than half of the total forest land has been declared reserved forests. Reserved forests are
regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife resources are concerned.
(b) Protected Forests: These forests are protected from further depletion. About one-third forests comes under protected forests.
(c) Unclassed Forests: These forests belong to government, private individuals and communities.

→ Distribution of Forest in India

Only 24.16% land is under forest in India. Distribution of forest in India is not uniform.
Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under pennanent forests with 75% of its total forest area. The other states like Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal and Maharashtra have large percentage of reserved forests.
States like Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan have large areas of protected forests.
All the north-eastern states and parts of Gujarat have large percentages of unclassed forests which are managed – by local communities.

→ Role of Community (local people) in Conserving Forest and Wildlife

Community or local people are very helpful in conserving biodiversity i.e. plants and animals. Many communities live in the forest. Forest is home of many traditional people.
In Rajasthan, local people came forward to stop.mining activities to protect Sariska Tiger Reserve.
People of five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared 1200 hectares of land as ‘Bhairodev Dakav Sonchuri’ in which hunting is not allowed.
In Jharkhand, Munda tribe worship Mahua and Kadamba trees and they protect them.
Famous Chipko Movement in Himalayas was started by local community only. Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have produced crops without the use of synthetic chemicals.
Joint Forest Management [JFM] started in Odisha is good method of involving local community in management and restoration of degraded forest.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 1 Resource and Development

September 9, 2024September 6, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 1 Resource and Development

→ Everything, that is available in our environment and can be used to satisfy our needs, is termed as resources, provided, it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable.

→ Resources are a function of human activities. Human beings themselves are essential components of resources.

→ Types of Resources: Resources can be classified into different categories:
(a) On the basis of origin: Biotic and abiotic.
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility: Renewable and non-renewable.
(c) On the basis of ownership: Individual, community, national and international.
(d) On the basis of status of development: Potential, developed stock and reserves.

→ Resource Planning: This is a technique or skill of proper utilisation of resources.

→ Resource Planning in India: Resource planning ,is a complex process which involves:
(a) Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This involves surveying, mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.
(b) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up for implementing resource development plans.
(c) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.

→ Conservation of Resources: Irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources may lead to socio-economic and environmental problems. To overcome these problems, resource conservation at various levels is important.

→ Land Resources:

India has land under variety of relief features like mountains, plateaus, plains and islands. About 43 per cent of the land area is plain, which is either used for agriculture or industry. 30 per cent of the total surface area of the country are mountains and ensure perennial flow of some rivers, provide facilities for tourism and ecological aspects.
The plateau region accounts for about 27 per cent of the area of the country. It possesses rich reserves of minerals, fossil fuels and forests.
The use of land is determined both by physical factors such as topography, climate, soil types and human factors such as population density, technological capability and culture and tradition, etc.

→ Land Degradation and Conservation Measures: Human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, mining and quarrying have contributed significantly in land degradation. Measures like afforestation, proper management of grazing, planting of shelter belts of plants, control on overgrazing, etc., can help to reduce land degradation in dry areas.

→ Soil as a Resource: Soil is a living system. It takes millions of years to form soil upto a few cm in depth. The important factors in the formation of soil are relief, parent rock or bed rock, climate, vegetation and other forms of life and time.

→ Types of Soil
(a) Alluvial soil: Alluvial soil as a whole is very fertile. Mostly this soil contains adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric acid and lime which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops. Due to its high fertility, regions pf alluvial soils are intensively cultivated and densely populated.

(b) Black soil: This soil is black in colour and is also known as regur soil. Black soil is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil. Black soil consists of higher proportion of clay and thus can retain moisture for a long time. The soil is sticky and when wet, it is difficult to work unless tilled immediately after the monsoon.

(c) Red soil: This soil develops a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in the areas of low rainfall.

(d) Laterite soil: Laterite soil develops in the areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall. This is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain. This soil is very useful for growing tea and coffee.

(e) Arid soil: Arid soil ranges from red to brown in colour. It is generally sandy in texture and saline in nature. In some areas Hie salt content is very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating the water.

(f) Forest soil: This soil is found in the hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain forests are available.

→ Soil Erosion and Conservation: Some human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, mining and quarrying have contributed significantly in land degradation.

→ Some methods of soil conservation are:
(a) Afforestation
(b) Controlled grazing
(c) Contour Ploughing
(d) Terrace Farming
(e) Strip Cropping
(f) Shelter belts
(g) Crop Rotation

→ Biotic: These are obtained from biosphere and have life.

→ Abiotic: Those things which are composed of non-living things.

→ Renewable Resources: The resources which can be renewed or reproduced.

→ Non-Renewable Resources: These resources take millions of years in their formation.

→ Individual Resources: Resources which are owned privately by the individuals.

→ Community Owned Resources: Resources which are accessible to all the members of the community.

→ National Resources: Resources belonging to the nation.

→ International Resources: International institutions which regulate some resources.

→ Potential Resources: Resources which are found in a region, but have not been utilised.

→ Developed Resources: Resources which are surveyed and their quality and quantity have been determined for utilisation.

→ Sustainable Development: Sustainable economic development means ‘development should take place without damaging the environment.

→ Soil Erosion: The removal of top fertile soil cover due to various reasons like wind, glacier and water.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 8 Challenges to Democracy

September 6, 2024September 5, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 8 Challenges to Democracy

→ Thinking about challenges

Democracy is the dominant form of government in the contemporary world. It does not face a serious challenge or rival.
The promise of democracy is far realized anywhere in the worlds
Democracy does not have a challenger, but that does not mean that it does not face any challenges.
A challenge is not just any problem. We usually call only those difficulties a ‘challenge’ which is significant and which can be overcome.
A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for progress.
The first challenge is a foundational challenge, of making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government.
The second challenge is the challenge of expansion. This involves applying the basic principle of democratic government across all the regions, different social groups and various institutions.
The third challenge is of deepening of democracy is faced by every democracy in one ‘form or another. This involves the strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy.

→ Thinking about political reforms

Generally, all the suggestions or proposals about overcoming various challenges to democracy are called ‘democratic reform’ or ‘political reform’.
If all the countries do not have the same challenges, it follows that everyone cannot follow the same recipe of political reforms.
We can develop some proposals for reforms at the national level.
But the real challenge of reforms may not lie at the national level.
Instead of that let us think of some broad guidelines that can be kept in mind while devising ways and means for political reforms in India:
It is very tempting to think of legal ways of reforming politics, to think of new laws to ban undesirable things. But this temptation needs to be resisted.
Any legal change must carefully look at what results it will have on politics. Sometimes the results may be counter-productive.
Democratic reforms are to be brought about principally through political practice. Therefore, the main focus of political reforms should be on ways to strengthen democratic practice.
Any proposal for political reforms should think not only about what is the good solution but also about who will implement it and how.
Let us keep these general guidelines in mind and look at some specific instances of challenges to democracy that require some measure of reform.

→ Redefining democracy

We began this tour of democracy last year with a minimal definition of democracy.
We then looked at many cases and expanded the definition slightly to add some definitions:
- The rulers elected by the people must take all the major decisions;
- Elections must offer a choice and fair opportunity to the people to change the current rulers;
- This choice and opportunity should be available to all the people on an equal basis; and
- The exercise of this choice must lead to a government limited by basic rules of the Constitution and citizens’ right.
You may have felt disappointed that the definition did not refer to any high ideals that we associate with democracy.
You may have noticed that in the course of our discussions of various aspects of democratic government and politics, we have gone beyond that definition:
We discussed democratic rights at length and noted that these rights are not limited to the rights to vote, stand in elections and form political organizations.
We have taken up power sharing as the spirit of democracy and discussed how power sharing between governments and social groups is necessary for a democracy.
We saw how democracy cannot be the brute rule of the majority and how a respect for minority voice is necessary for democracy.
Our discussion of democracy has gone beyond tfie government and its activities.
Finally, we have had some discussion about some outcomes that one can expect from democracy.
In doing so, we have not gone against the definition of democracy offered last year. We began then with a definition of what is the minimum a country must have to be called a democracy.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 7 Outcomes of Democracy

September 6, 2024September 5, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 7 Outcomes of Democracy

→ How do we assess democracy’s outcomes?

Democracy is a better form of government when compared with dictatorship or any other alternative.
Democracy is better because it promotes equality among the citizens; enhances the dignity of the individual; improves the quality of decision-making; provides a method to, resolve conflicts; and allows room to correct mistakes.
Over a hundred countries of the world today claim and practise some kind of democratic politics.
The first step towards thinking carefully about the outcomes of democracy is to recognise that democracy is just a form of government. It creates conditions for achieving something, the advantage of which the citizens have to take and achieve those goals.

→ Accountable, responsive and legitimate government

• The most basic outcome of democracy should be {hat it produces a government that is accountable to the citizens, and responsive to the needs and expectations of the citizens.
Democracy is based on the idea of deliberation and negotiation.
Non-democratic rulers do not have to bother about deliberation in assemblies or worry about majorities and public opinion. Hence, they can be very quick and efficient in
• On the other hand, in democracy, it will take more time to follow procedures. As it has followed procedures, its decisions may be both more acceptable to people and more effective.
In a democratic government, a citizen has the right and the means to examine the process of decision making. This is known as transparency. This factor is often missing from a non-democratic government.
Democratic government develops mechanisms for citizens to hold the government accountable and mechanisms for citizens to take part in decision making whenever they think fit.
Democracy holds regular, free and fair elections; open public debate on major policies and legislation; and citizens have the right to information about the government and its functioning.
A democratic government is attentive to the needs and demands of the people and is largely free of corruption.
Democratic government is a legitimate government. It may be slow, less efficient, not always very responsive or clean, but it is people’s own government. That is why there is overwhelming support for the idea of democracy all over the world. People wish to be ruled by representatives elected by them.

→ Economic growth and development

Dictatorships have slightly higher rate of economic growth. This cannot be the only reason to reject democracy.
Economic development depends on several factors, such as country’s population, size,
global situation, cooperation from other countries, economic priorities adopted by the country, etc.
The difference in the rates of economic development between less developed countries with dictatorships and democracies is negligible.

→ Reduction of inequality and poverty

Democracies are based on political equality. However, there are economic inequalities. The share of the total income enjoyed by the ultra-rich has been increasing. Those at the bottom of the society have very little to depend on.
Democracies do not appear to be very successful in reducing economic inequalities.

→ Accommodation of social diversity

Democracies accommodate various social divisions/ Belgium has successfully negotiated differences among ethnic populations. Democracies usually develop a procedure to conduct their competition.
Ability to handle social differences, divisions and conflicts is a plus point of democratic regimes. Democracy must fulfil two conditions in order to achieve this outcome:
- The majority always needs’ to work with the minority so that governments function to represent the general view.
- Rule by the majority does not become rule by majority community in terms of religion or race or linguistic group, etc.
Democracy remains a democracy only as long as every citizen has a chance of being in majority at some point in time.

→ Dignity and freedom of the citizens

Democracy promotes dignity and freedom of the individual. The passion for respect and freedom is the basis of democracy. This has been achieved in various degrees in various democracies.
Long, struggles by women have created some sensitivity today that respect to and
equal treatment of women are necessary ingredients of a democratic society.
What is most distinctive about democracy is that its examination never gets over.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Political Parties

September 6, 2024September 5, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 6 Political Parties

→ Why do we need political parties?

Political parties are one of the most easily visible institutions in a democracy.
Parties have become identified with social and political divisions.
About hundred years ago there were a few countries of the world that had any political party. Now, there are few that do not have parties.

→ Meaning

A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government.
They agree on some policies and programes for the society with a view to promote the collective good.
Parties reflect fundamental political divisions in a society. Parties are a part of the society and thus involve PARTNERSHIP.
A political party has three components:
(a) The leaders,
(b) The active members, and
(c) The followers.

→ Functions
Political parties fill political offices and exercise political power. Parties do so by performing a series of functions:
(a) Parties contest elections. In most democracies, elections are fought mainly among the candidates put up by the political parties.
(b) Parties put forward different policies and programmes and the voters choose from them.
(c) Parties play a decisive role in making laws for a country. Formally, laws are debated and passed in the legislature.
(d) Parties form and run the government. As we noted last year, the big policy decisions are taken by the political executives that come from the political parties.
(e) Those parties that lose in the elections play the role of opposition to the parties in power, by voicing different views and criticizing the government for its failures or wrong policies.
(f) Parties shape public opinion. They raise and highlight issues. Parties have lakhs of members and activists spread all over the country.
(g) Parties provide people access to government machinery and welfare schemes implemented by the governments.

→ Necessity

We need political parties because they perform all these functions.
The rise of political parties is directly linked to the emergence of representative democracies.
As we have seen, large scale societies need representative democracies.
Political parties fulfil these needs that every representative government has.

→ How many parties should we have?

In a democracy, any group of citizens is free to form a political party.
There are a large number of political parties in each country.
More than 750 parties are registered with the Election Commission of India.
In some countries, only one party is allowed to control and run the government. These are called one-party system in China, only Communist Party is allowed to rule.
We cannot consider one party system as a good option because this is not a democratic option.
Any democratic system must allow at least two parties to compete in the election and provide a fair chance for the competing parties to come to the power.
In some countries, power usually changes between two main parties.
But only the two main parties have a bright chance of winning the majority of seats to form the government. Such a party system is called two-party system.
If several parties compete for power, and more than two parties have a reasonable chance of coming to power either on their own strength or in alliance with others, we call it multi-party system.
When several parties in a multi-party system join hands for the purpose of contesting elections and winning power, it is called an alliance or a front.
The multi-party system often appears very messy and leads to political instability.
This system allows a variety of interests and opihions to enjoy political representation.

→ National parties

Democracies that follow a federal system all over the world tend to have two kinds of-politicitl parties: parties that are present in only one of the federal units and parties that are present in several or all units of Federation.
Every party in the country has to register with the Election Commission. While the Election Commission treats all parties equally, it offers some special facilities to large and established parties.
Parties that get this privilege and special facilities are ‘recognised’ by the Election Commission are called, ‘recognised political parties’.
According to this classification, there were seven national recognised parties in the country in 2018. These are:
(a) Indian National Congress
(b) Bharatiya Janta Party
(c) Bahujan Samaj Party
(d) Communist Party of India-Marxist
(e) Communist Party of India
(f) Nationalist Congress Party
(g) All India Trinamool Congress

→ State party

Other than these seven parties, most of the major parties of the country are classified by the Election Commission as ‘State parties’.
Parties like
(a) Samajwadi party,
(b) Samata party and Rashtriya Janata Dal have national level political organization with units in several States.
Some of these parties like Biju Janata Dal, Sikkim Democratic Front and Mizo National Front and Telangana Rashtra Samithi are conscious of their State identity.
Over the last three decades, the number and strength of these parties has expanded.

→ Challenges to political parties

All over the world, people express strong dissatisfaction with the failure of political parties to perform their functions as well.
The first challenge is lack of internal democracy within parties. All over the world there is a tendency towards the concentration of power in one or few leaders at the top.
The leaders assume greater power to make decisions in the name of the party.
Since one or few leaders exercise paramount power in the party, those who disagree with the leadership find it difficult to continue in the party.
The second challenge of the dynastic ‘ succession is related to the first one. Since
most political parties do not practise open and transparent procedures for their functioning, there are very few ways for an ordinary worker to rise to the top in a party.
The third challenge is about the growing role of money and muscle power in parties, especially during elections.
Rich people and companies who give funds to the parties tend to have influence on the policies and decisions of the parties.
In some cases, parties support criminals who can win elections.
The fourth challenge is that very often parties do not seem to offer a meaningful choice to the voters.

→ How can parties be reformed?
Let us look at some of the recent efforts and suggestions in our country to reform political parties and its leaders:
(a) The Constitution was amended to prevent elected MLAs and MPs from changing parties. This was done because many elected representatives were indulging in DEFECTION in order to become ministers or for cash rewards.
(b) The Supreme Court passed an order to reduce the influence of money and criminals.
(c) The Election Commission passed an . ordermaking it necessary for political parties to hold their organizational elections and file their income tax returns.

→ Besides these, many suggestions are often made to reform political parties:
(a) A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties. It should be made compulsory for political parties to maintain a register of its members.

(b) It should be made mandatory for political parties to give a minimum number of tickets, about one-third, to women candidates.

(c) There should be state funding of elections. The government should give parties money to support their election expenses.

These suggestions have not yet been accepted by political parties.
There are two other ways in which political parties can be reformed.
One people can put pressure on political parties. This can be done through petition, publicity, and agitation.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 5 Popular Struggles and Movements

September 6, 2024September 5, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 5 Popular Struggles and Movements

→ Popular struggles in Nepal and Bolivia Movements for democracy in Nepal

Nepal witnessed an extraordinary popular movement in April 2006. The movement was aimed at restoring democracy.
The movement of April 2006 was aimed at retaining popular control over the government from the king.
All the major political parties in the parliament formed a Seven Party Alliance (SPA) and called for four-day strike in Kathmandu, the country’s capital.
The number of protesters reached between three to five lakhs on 21 April and they served an ultimatum to the king.
The leader of the movement rejected the half-hearted concessions made by the king.
They stuck to their demand for restoration of parliament, the power to an all party government and a new constituent assembly.
On 24 April 2004, the last day of the ultimatum; the king was forced to concede all the three demands.
The SPA chose Girija Prasad Koirala as the new Prime Minister of the interim government.
This struggle came to be known as Nepal’s second movement for democracy.

→ Bolivia Water War

Bolivia is a poor country in Latin America.
World Bank pressurized the government to give up the control of water supply. So, the government to sell the rights of water supply to M.N.C.
As soon as they get the right of water supply, they increased the price of water by four times.
This bought troubles in lives of common people and led to a popular protest.
In January 2000, an alliance of labour human rights organizations called for a four day strike in city. Hence, the government agreed to negotiate but nothing happened.
The agitation was started again in February and April, but the government tried to suppress the movement.
But the power of people forced the M.N.C. to flee the city and made the government to accept all the demands.
The contract with M.N.C. was cancelled and water supply was restored to Municipality.

→ Democracy and popular struggles

What are differences between Bolivia and Nepal?
The movement in Nepal was to establish democracy but movement in Bolivia was against the policy of an elected democratic government.
The popular struggle in Bolivia was about one specific policy while the struggle in Nepal was about the foundation of country’s politics.

→ What are similarities between Bolivia and Nepal?

Both of these are instances of political conflicts that led to popular struggles.
In both cases, the struggle involved mass mobilization.
Public demonstration of mass support clinched the dispute.

→ Conclusion

Democracy evolves through popular struggles.
Democracy involves conflict between those who are in power and those who aspires for power.
Democratic conflicts are resolved through mass mobilization.
If the conflicts cannot be resolved by parliament the solution will come from people. ,
These conflicts and mobilization are based on new political organization.

→ Mobilization and organizations

The protest against water privatization in Bolivia was not led by any political party.
It was led by an organization called FEDECOR.
This organization comprised of local professionals, including engineers and environmentalists.
The movement was supported by the socialist party. In 200.6, this party came to power in Bolivia.
From both these examples, we can see that in a democracy several different kinds of organizations work behind any big struggle.
These organizations play their role in two ways:
- One-way of influencing the decisions in a democracy is direct participation in competitive politics.
- There are many indirect ways in which people can get governments to listen to their demands or their points of view.

→ Pressure groups and movements

Pressure groups are organizations that attempt to influence government policies.
These organizations are formed when people with common occupation, interest, aspirations or opinions come together in order to achieve a common objective.

→ Sectional interest groups and public interest groups

Interest groups seek to promote the interests of a particular section or group of society.
Their principal concern is the betterment and well-being of their members, not society in general.
Sometimes these organizations are not about representing the interest of one section of society. They represent some common or general interest that needs to be defined. These type of groups are called promotional groups or public interest groups.
They promote collective rather than selective goods. They aim to help groups other than their own members.

→ Movement groups

As in the case of interest groups, the groups involved with movements include a very wide variety.
Most of the movements are issues specific movements that seek to achieve a single objective within a limited time frame.
The movement started with the specific issues of the people displaced by the creation of Sardar Sarovar dam on the Narmada River. Its objective was to stop the dam from being constructed.
These single-issue movements can be contrasted with movements that are long terms and involve more than one issue.
Pressure groups and movements exert influence on politics in a variety of ways:
- They try to gain public support and sympathy for their goals and their activity by carrying out information
  campaigns, organizing meetings, file petition, etc.
- They often organize protest activity like strikes or disrupting government programs.
- Business groups often employ professional lobbyists or sponsors expensive advertisements.
- In some instances, the pressure groups are either formed or led by the leaders of political parties or act as extended arms of political parties.
- Sometimes political parties grow out of movements.
- In most cases, the relationship between parties and interest or movement groups is not so direct.

→ Is their influeqce healthy?

It may initially appear that it is not healthy for groups that promote the interest of one section to have influence in democracy.
It may seem that these groups wield power without responsibility.
Pressure groups and movements may not get their funds and support from the people.
Putting pressure on the rulers is not unhealthy activity in a democracy as long as everyone gets this opportunity.
Public interest groups and movements perform a useful role in countering this useful role or countering this undue influence and reminding the government of the needs and concerns of ordinary citizens.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 4 Gender Religion and Caste

September 6, 2024September 5, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 4 Gender Religion and Caste

→ Gender and Politics Public/private divisions

Boys and girls are brought up to believe that the main responsibility of women is housework and bringing up children.
This is reflected in a SEXUAL DIVISIONS OF LABOUR in most families: women do all work inside the home.
When jobs are paid for, men are ready to take up works live. Most tailors or cooks in hotels are men.
In urban areas, poor women work as a domestic helper in middle-class homes, while middle-class women work in offices.
The result of this division of labour is that although women constitute half of the humanity, their role in public life, especially politics, is minimal in most societies.
Women in different parts of the world organised and agitated for equal rights.
More radical women’s movements aimed at equality in personal and family life as well. These movements are called FEMINIST movements.
We now find women working as scientists, doctors,-.engineers, lawyers, managers and college and university teachers which were earlier not considered suitable for women.
In Scandinavian countries such as Sweden, Norway and Finland, the participation of women in public life is very high.
In our country, women still lag much behind men despite some improvement since independence.
Ours is still a male-dominated, PATRIARCHAL society.

→ Women face disadvantage, discrimination and oppression in various ways

The literacy rate among women is only 54% compared with 76% of men.
On an average an Indian woman works one hour more than an average man every day. Yet much of her work is not paid and therefore often not valued.
In almost all areas of work, from sports and cinema to factories and fields, women are paid less than men, even when both do exactly the same work.
In many parts of India, parents prefer to have sons and find ways to have the girl child aborted before she is bom.
Urban areas have become unsafe for women.
They are not safe even within their own home from beating, harassment and other forms of domestic-violence.

→ Women’s political representation

Yet issues related to women’s well-being or otherwise are not given adequate attention.
One way to ensure this is to have more women as elected representatives.
In India, the proportion of women in the legislature has been very low.
The percentage of elected women members in Lok Sabha has never reached even 10% of its total strength.
In the government, cabinets are largely all male even when a woman becomes the Chief Minister or the Prime Minister.
One way to solve this problem is to make it legally binding to have a fair proportion of women in the elected bodies. This is what the Panchayati Raj has done in India.
There is more than 10 lakh elected women representatives in rural and urban local bodies.
Women’s organizations and activists have been demanding a similar reservation of at least one-third of seats in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for women.
A bill with proposal has been pending before the Parliament for more than a decade.
Gender division is an example of some form of social division needs to be expressed in politics. ,

→ Religion, communalism and politics

The division based on religious differences:
Many countries including India have in their population, followers of different religions. Consider the following:
- Gandhiji used to say that religion can never be separated from politics. He meant politics must be guided by ethics drawn from religion.
- Human rights groups in our country have argued that most of the victims of communal riots in our country are people from religious minorities.
- Women’s movement has argued that FAMILY LAWS of all religions discriminate against women.

→ Communalism

The problem begins when religion is seen as the basis of the nation.
Communal politics is based on the ideas that religion is the principal basis of a social community.

→ Communalism can take various forms in politics

The most common expression of communalism is in everyday beliefs.
A communal mind often leads to a quest for political dominance of one’s own religious community.
Political mobilization on religious lines is another frequent form of communalism.
Sometimes communalism takes its most ugly form of communal violence, riots and massacre.
Communalism was and continues to be one of the major challenges to democracy in our country.
There is no official religion for the Indian state. The constitution provide freedom to profess any religion and prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion.

→ Caste and politics
We have seen two instances of the expression of social divisions in the arena of politics, one largely positive and the other largely negative.

→ Caste inequalities

Unlike gender and religion, caste division is special to India.
In most societies, occupations are passed on from one generation to another.
Caste system was based on the exclusion and discrimination against the ‘outcaste’ groups.
Partly due to efforts of social reformers and partly due to other socio-economic changes, castes and the caste system in modem India have undergone great changes.
Large scale URBANISATION, the growth of literacy and education, OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY and old notions of CASTE HIERARCHY are breaking down.
Now, in urban areas it does not matter much who is walking along the next to us on a street or eating at the next table in a restaurant.
Yet caste has not disappeared from contemporary India. Some of the older aspects of caste have persisted.
Effects of centuries of advantages and disadvantages continue to be felt today.

→ Caste in politics

As in the case of communalism, casteism is rooted in the belief that caste is the sole basis of social community.
Caste is one aspect of our experience but it is not the only relevant or the most important aspect.

→ Caste can take various forms in politics

When governments are formed, political parties usually take care that representatives of different castes and tribes find a place in it.
Thus, it is not politics that gets caste-ridden; it is the caste that gets politicized.

→ This takes several forms

Each group tries to become bigger by incorporating within it neighbouring castes or sub-castes which were earlier excluded from it.
Various caste groups are required to enter into a dialogue and negotiation.
New kinds of caste groups have come up in the political arena like ‘backward’ and ‘forward’ caste group.

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes

JAC Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 3 Democracy and Diversity

September 6, 2024September 5, 2024 by Bhagya

JAC Board Class 10 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 3 Democracy and Diversity

→ A Story from Mexico Olympics

The story depicts an important landmark in the history of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States.
The two men standing with clenched fists upraised and head bowed are the US athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos.
The International Olympics Association held Carlos and Smith guilty of violating the Olympic spirit by making a political statement.
Their medals were taken back.
Back home, they were subjected to a lot of criticism, even Peter Norman, who wore a badge of the Olympic Project for Human Rights in support of Tommie Smith and John Carlos had also suffered a lot, he was not included in the 1972 summer Olympics.
But their action gained attention for the Civil Rights Movements in the US.

→ Differences, Similarities, Divisions

The athletes above were responding to social divisions and social inequalities.
Social diversity can take different forms in different societies.

→ Origins of Social Differences
These social differences are mostly based on an accident of birth.

We don’t choose to belong to our community.
But all kinds of social differences are not based on our birth.
Some of the differences are based on our choices.
For example, some people are atheists. They don’t believe in God or any religion.
Every social difference does not lead to social divisions.
In the instances above, Carlos and Smith were similar in one way and thus different from Norman who was White.
But they where also all similar in another way – they were all athletes who stood against racial discrimination.
We all have more than one identity and can belong to more than one social group.
We have different identities in different contexts.

→ Overlapping and Cross-Cutting Differences

Social division takes place when some social differences overlap with other differences.
In the US, the Blacks tend to be the poor, homeless and are discriminated against.
In our country, Dalits tend to be the poor and landless.
They often face discrimination and injustice.
The group that shares a common interest on one issue is likely to be in different issues.
Overlapping social differences create possibilities of deep social divisions and tensions.
Cross-cutting social differences are easier to accommodate.

→ Politics of Social Divisions

At first sight, it would appear that the combination of politics and social divisions is very dangerous and explosive.
Political parties can make social divisions into political divisions and lead to conflict, violence or even disintegration of a country.
This has happened in many countries.

→ Range of Outcomes

Northern Ireland of the United Kingdom has been for many years the site of a violent and bitter ethno-political conflicts.
Such examples lead some people to conclude that politics and social divisions must not be allowed to mix.
But if social divisions do exist in a country, they must never be expressed in politics.
At the same time every expression of social divisions in politics does not lead to such disasters.
In a democracy, it is. only natural that political parties would talk about these divisions, make different promises to different communities.
Social divisions affect voting in most countries.
In many countries, there are parties that focus only on one community.

→ Three Determinants

Three factors are crucial in deciding the outcome of politics of social divisions.
(a) Outcome depends on how people perceive their identities.
(b) It depends on how political leaders raise the demands of any community.
(c) It depends on how the government reacts to demands of different groups.
Thus the assertion of social diversities in a country need not be seen as a source of danger.
Expression of various kinds of social divisions in politics often results in their cancelling one another out and thus reducing their intensity.
People who feel marginalised, deprived and discriminated have to fight against the injustices.
Sometimes social differences can take the form of unacceptable level of social inequality and injustice.
History shows that democracy is the best way to fight for recognition and also to accommodate diversity.